By: K.I.P.

The Economic history of India is one that evokes strong reactions. It is a topic on which the reactions of both the Right and Left are at odds with the mainstream view of economists. Let’s study the principal reactions, and in the process survey the Economic history of India! There are 3 views of reflecting different reactions:

1. Mainstream view : India was a subsistence economy for much of its history until it started growing in the past 3-4 decades

2. Nationalist view (Right): Ancient India was a Sone ki Chidiya which was impoverished by Muslim and later British rule

3. Nationalist view (Left): Mughal India was a Sone ki Chidiya which was badly impoverished by colonial era free trade, and has recovered since independence.

All these three views have their merit, in parts, though I am most critical of the third view reflecting the Indian Left’s reaction. Before we get into the details, let’s get a macro-view of the Indian economy over the past 2000 years, as per Angus Maddison – a mainstream British economist.

This chart is based on Maddison’s famous paper in 2001 titled “The World Economy – A Millennial Perspective”. The chart comes from this link –

And the paper can be accessed here –

https://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy–A%20Millennial.pdf/Development/MA…

Here’s a chart that sums up Maddison’s PPP-adjusted PCI estimates for India in 1990 international $

Here’s an examination of Maddison’s chart in more concrete terms using precise numbers, in a table (which I have updated till 2017). It is one little excel table that is more provocative than most tables on India. Let’s study it closely.

So we know that Maddison’s view corresponds to the “Mainstream” view we have outlined at the start – India was not much richer than a subsistence economy from 1 AD right up to 1973. Its share of world GDP was merely a reflection of its population share.

But Maddison is not stating this about India per se. His view that right up to the Industrial Revolution, GDP shares merely reflected the Population share, is held across all geographies.

It is in line with the orthodox Malthusian perspective. Let’s examine more.

Here’s Maddison on the Per-capita GDPs across many parts of the world in 1 AD and 1000 AD.

It is a problematic chart – as we will discuss soon.

What is remarkable about the above chart is that Maddison doesn’t explicitly discuss (at least in the paper) on why he places India or the current “US” at $450 in 1AD.

There appears to be an implicit Malthusian assumption.

But these numbers contradict our historical understanding. We all know that back in the year 1 AD, North America was a wilderness, and a hunter gatherer society. India was a society with large empires, considerable urbanization, copious literature, among other things. Western Europe was a part of the massive Roman Empire!

Yet as per Maddison, Western Europe, India and China (three very advanced societies in many ways) were only marginally richer than the hunter gatherers in North America!

It seems incredible, yet nobody has challenged Maddison sufficiently on this yet. Will a society close to subsistence have the surpluses necessary to produce  Mahabharata, Ramayana, Manu Smriti, Arthashastra, Aeneid, Homeric epics, Bible
and numerous other Latin / Greek works?

Question worth asking is: Back in 200CE, the population of the city of Rome was estimated to be 1MM inhabitants. The population of Pataliputra at the height of the Gupta period circa 400 CE is also estimated to be several hundred thousands. These were extremely large cities. Yet Maddison regards India, China and Western Europe to be not much richer than the hunter-gatherers of America 2000 years ago!

This suggests a somewhat slavish adherence to the Malthusian maxim, that appears to be in defiance of historical records and memory.

As per Broadberry / Bishnupriya, there was quite a significant decline in Per-capita GDP between 1600 and 1800. And this was the period of Mughal zenith! So clearly the numbers here don’t speak too well for Mughal India.

1600 PCI : $682 (this was when Akbar ruled over North India, but not the South)
1700 PCI : $622 (clearly a decline….a period when Mughal empire covered all of India)
1800 PCI : $569 (after a century of anarchy and Mughal decline, but still preceding pan Indian British rule)

So clearly the decline of the Indian economy started long before the establishment of British Raj, and coincides with the heyday of the Mughal Empire.

In fact it is striking that PCI in India in 1600 (at the start of the decline) at $682 was higher than the PCI in 1950 of $619!

Now let’s look at the last 500 years. Let’s compare the estimates of Braoadberry, Bishnupriya and Custodis (2014) with those of Maddison. Their paper can be accessed here –

https://t.co/J0vk1nmLDM?amp=1

Also when we discuss India as a whole, the regional variation is something that has to be borne in mind.

Circa 1800 while Indian PCI is estimated to be close to $500, the PCI of Mysore was estimated to be well in excess of $1500 and close to $2000 (by Sashi Sivaramakrishna)

But what’s undeniable however is that all data points to a decline starting 1600 and continuing unabated till 1870s. And we must be careful to note that the first part of this long period of decline actually corresponds to Mughal heyday and precedes the Empire’s decline!

And now coming to the absolutely best part: Economic history post 1870.

As you can see growth resumes circa 1870. But then this is also the period of the Industrial Revolution, when the gap between the West and the rest massively widened because of industrial revolution & subsequent colonization.

Conclusion:

1) India was on average a developed society till Islamic invasions started.

2) Mughal empire did not generate wealth as is commonly claimed by leftist historians but collapsed it.

3) Socialist policies pursued by India post independence period lead to a worse gap in income between west and India than it was during the hay days of colonial loot.

So what had happened to India after  the period of colonization was over? One would expect the growth of India to be faster than  it was during the colonization period! Correct? No!

Socialist policies pursued by the first PM  of India made gap between India and west wider than what it was during hey days of  the British Raj!

In fact the gap between India and the West was way bigger circa 1998 and even marginally bigger in 2017 than in 1870, that is, during the heyday of the British Raj.

In fact the gap between US and Indian per-capita incomes was much wider in 1998 than in 1950! And it is almost twice as wide in 2017 as it was in 1870!

This helps us understand why there is so much rage against the era of Nehru-Gandhi rule from 1950 till 1990.

Sure, the “Nehruvian” growth rates were higher than growth rates at any point in Indian history. Yet they were awfully low relative to the growth rates in the rest of the world.

So while India did start growing post 1870, we have only regressed in a relative sense, because we have been totally out of step with the pace being set in much of the developed world.

Parmanand Pandey, Secretary General: IPC

     Mr Imran Khan, a Don Juan, is now set to become the new Prime Minister of Pakistan as his Pakistan Tahrik-e- Insaf (PTI) has emerged the largest party in the National Assembly. He is famous in the entire cricketing world, particularly in Pakistan, India and England. His image of a philanthropist and a corruption-free politician has also helped his Party to win the largest number of seats. However, what has helped him most in coming to power is Pakistani Army. The Army will now rule with a remote control having a civilian face as the Prime Minister, who is more a Casanova than a politician. He will be nothing more than the puppet of the Pakistani Army.

       He made his foray into politics some two decades ago and now he has achieved his ambition to head a state which is a known rouge state all over the world. What has disappointed most the people all over the world was his address to the nation the day it became clear that he was sure to become the Prime Minister. His address to the nation made it crystal clear he would be a handmaiden Prime Minister of the all-powerful army of Pakistan, which is known for its phenomenal notoriety for providing safe haven to terrorists in Pakistan.

    The debonair politician has not spoken a word against the terrorists like Hafiz Saeed or even against the fugitive and a bully like Parvez Musharraf, who still continues to enjoy the support of the Army. As everybody in India knows that it was the late General Zia-ul-Haque and Parvez Musharraf, who throttled the democracy. In fact, democracy has never been able to take roots in Pakistan right from its inception. There is no doubt that Nawaz Sharif was a corrupt Prime Minister but so have been all politicians and other establishments of Pakistan without exception. Almost all Army Officers of any significance in Pakistan live like feudal Lords because they have amassed the enormous amount of wealth through corrupt means. A novice like Mr Imran Khan is, therefore, the most suitable and pliant person for the Army to be the Prime Minister of Pakistan.

     With the amount of popularity that he enjoys in India, it was expected that this man would work for the normalisation of relations between India and Pakistan, but his speech dashed all hopes as it was so disappointing that nothing can be hoped from him. Now it is clear that he will play and dance only to the tune of the Army. In his speech, he spoke like a parrot on the issue of Jammu and Kashmir as was dictated by the Army. He has not spoken a word against the Jaish-e-Mohammad, Lashkar-e-Taiba and Al Qaeda and other terrorist organisations which export terror to other countries, particularly to India. Obviously, because these terror outfits are nurtured by the vagrant and in-disciplined Army. It is hoped that he will avoid adopting the misadventures of the Army, which resulted in the vivisection of Pakistan in 1971 and crushing defeat during the Kargil war.

    However, it will be too much to expect anything innovative from this womaniser Prime Minister. It is an open secret that the Pakistani Army rigged the elections in favour of Imran Khan. His address on television was shocking as he relegated India to the last step of the ladder of his priorities. Even Afghanistan and Iran were kept above India. China was eulogized by him as his Army masters wanted him to do.

    Sometimes it is seen that even newcomers in the power politics do wonderful works but that is when they have an independent mind. Here, in this case, Imran Khan’s mind has already been toxified against India by the corrupt Army.

    Let us see what is in store for Pakistan under his premiership. As they say that ‘coming events cast their shadows before’, therefore, we in India cannot expect much from Imran Khan. India will have to be vigilant as the notorious may again create mischiefs behind the veneer of this seducer of women, Imran Khan.

                  By: Shreepal Singh
Nobody wants to work and he or she has to be compelled to work. Nobody wants to work but he or she needs a multitude of items of basic necessities, and extended necessities. But all of these items need the work of humans (and now-a-days robots) to be produced. Nothing is free in this world and there is no item that does not cost something – an amount of work. Then, everybody has to be somehow compelled to work. Which way can one be compelled to work? There are many ways to do this and there are as many economic theories and political ideologies.

Work consumes energy, which energy is available in human’s biological body in a limited quantity and needs replenishment again and again on daily basis. It requires food and other items to replenish this energy and keep this physical human body healthy and its reservoir of energy inexhaustible, which food and items are not available for free. It is a cycle of give and take and one has to pay (in the form of work) for what one gets for replenishing one’s reservoir of energy. Human biology forces him to conserve his energy by avoiding work or at least by minimizing this work.

If you allow a person the right to take work from others, and the right to fire if these others do not work, then it is capitalism – an economic theory – of democracy, a political ideology.

If you allow the state – as against an individual – the right to take work from its citizens, and the right to physically coerce these citizens in case they do not work, then it is collective commune – an economic theory – of socialism or communism, a political ideology.

If you allow the king – and lords or zamindars under him – the right to take work from his subjects, and the right to confiscate land, houses, household items if these subjects do not work, then it is feudalism – an economic theory – of monarchy, a political ideology.

If you allow the tribe – as against an individual, state or king – the right to take work from the members of its community, and the right to deny a share in the common produce of the tribe, then it is primitive economy of the tribal society.

We do not want to work but we need to work. This has been our story so far – from the cave dwelling days to the days of modern technology. But now robots have come on the scene to take over this need to work. It is an entry of a new factor in human society. Humanity has to reconcile itself with the new situation. The story that has been so far has to change in some way. It is a turning point in our story. Which way we need to change the direction, is the matter of great importance that we will have to consider very soon.

By: Shreepal Singh

Best of brains have been flocking to the U.S. for decades running into a couple of centuries now and the U. S. people by and large are the best of human beings in the world. Temperamentally, the U. S. citizens are objective in their outlook, honest in assessment of things around them and bold in making their judgments of the situations they care to look at.  It is not amazing that their country’s well known newspaper “New York Times’ does regularly propagate anti-India stories, which are out of sync with reality, biased in nature and obsessive in habit. The amazing thing is how these sober people of the U. S. silently suffer such misdeeds of this newspaper. This newspaper is a giant of media and holds colossal amount of money at its disposal but still these advantages are not enough to make it withstand people’s censure. We wish to examine how this newspaper is committed to twist the objective reality and serve an agenda, which is not only against the people of India but also against the people of the U. S.

The ordinary people around the world – including the people of the U. S. and the people of India – are suffering twin pains: unbearable pressure of economic circumstances on their peaceful life; and, threat to the physical security of their life. This newspaper has no space or time for these common concerns of the ordinary people. What interests it more is to obstructs those – either in the U. S. or outside of the U. S. – who seek to address these concerns and seek an international collaboration in that work. The U. S. has seen 9/11 at World Trade Center and India has seen 11/9 at Bombay and they both – and many more around the world – know this lurking danger of terrorism to their people. But the New York Times would feel no concern on this count; it has some other priorities. While the U. S. is doing what it can do to address this concern in its own way, India too is trying its best to save its own people; but this newspaper is more interested in defaming India and India’s efforts in this direction.

New York Times is so partitioned in its biased mission that it would find no time to check with the objective data on the subject of its writings and rush to blame its target. In the case of India, this newspaper was scornful of this country before the present Prime Minister of India – Mr. Modi – assumed power in this country and prefixed its name with a wretched third world country. And, now when India is making its efforts under Modi to change things for the better for its people, this newspaper has become full of hatred and disdain for India. The editor of this newspaper – Mr. Joseph Hope – has got together a host of paid writers, who are expert in writing against India. Here we are analyzing a sample of its work – an article written by Robert F. Worth and published by it on July, 26, 2018. This article looks like it is against Swami Ramdev (a Hindu Yoga-guru) but in fact it is against the Indian State, its political leaders and the Indian people who elected these leaders. Here in this response to this article we are not concerned with nations or nationalism – either of the U. S. or India – but only with the truth.

The editorial team of this newspaper in propagating such material on the sheer strength of its money is not only unwise in its tracks but also arrogant. Such acts on its part, destroy the goodwill between the two peoples and ruffle the sentiments of the affected people pushing them to form mutually antagonistic blocks at the international level. Perhaps, the arrogance knows no limits! This newspaper, under the mistaken idea of it being the crusader of democracy in other countries, is doing a great disservice to the global peace, established international order and goodwill among the comity of nations.

The link to this article is given at the end of our response.

Robert F. Worth says:

“But the B.J.P.’s ambitions go well beyond 2019. Unlike the Congress party, the B.J.P. doesn’t just want to govern; it wants to transform the country, politically and culturally. The Indian state and its business allies have become increasingly enmeshed in Hindu religious education and promotion, funding ashrams, gurukuls  (where students apprentice themselves to a guru and study Sanskrit) and priest education. Modi’s government has also helped empower figures like Yogi Adityanath, a right-wing Hindu firebrand who has said he wants to install statues of Hindu gods in every mosque, and who last year became chief minister of Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state.”

Dear Worth, we challenge you – if you are of any worth to justify your name – to quote with the appropriate proof where Yogi Adityanath has said – before or after he became the chief minister of Uttar Pradesh – that “he wants to install statutes of Hindu gods in every mosque.” Even if you quote one instance of his saying so, we would admit all what you are saying here in this article; else, we would request you stop spreading canard against India and its democratically elected political figures. This is our first request to you, if you have any sense of self esteem and public responsibility.

Secondly, you say, “Unlike the Congress party, the B. J. P. doesn’t just want to govern; it wants to transform the country, politically and culturally.” You very well know, “the Congress party just governed” this country (for 70 long years) and, we dare say, you also know where this country has stood so far: a wretched third world economy, earning your scorn and disdain! Do you not want this country to transform itself, politically (dynastic rule) and culturally (corrupt)? Surely, you should! This is your hate for India, that speaks so badly against India, its people and their political representatives. Indian people are good to the core of their heart, please do not hate them; it does no good to any person of conscience.

Thirdly, you say, “The Indian state and its business allies have become increasingly enmeshed in Hindu religious education and promotion, funding ashrams, gurukuls (where students apprentice themselves to a guru and study Sanskrit) and priest education.” This is our second challenge to you, to respect your name and worth, please cite one example – just one example – where the “Indian state” has funded an “Ashram or gurukul”. If you are able to provide such information, it would be an addition to our knowledge – and to the knowledge of the whole world; else, we again request you not to spread canard and hate against India and its people.

Fourthly, your grievance is that the Indian state’s “business allies have become increasingly enmeshed in Hindu religious education and promotion, funding ashrams, gurukuls (where students apprentice themselves to a guru and study Sanskrit) and priest education.” Dear Robert, are you so simpleton not to be aware of the fact that in the U. S. there are countless business houses who fund Christian colleges, universities, research facilities and public educational institutions? It can’t be the case with you, we hope! So, according to you, it is not bad if it is done in the U. S. by its businessmen  in the service of Christianity but it is really objectionable if the same is done by Indian businessmen in India in the service of Hinduism!

Please educate yourself: Hindus are not bad people; Hinduism is not bad in its attitude towards others; Hinduism seeks no conversion of the whole world to its own side, just as Christianity (and the other branch of Abrahamic faith) is hell-bent upon with its world-wide programs, mission and targets. And, also it may not be wrong to say that the learning and promotion of Greek and Latin languages is a commendable thing, and that likewise the learning and promotion of Sanskrit language is a good thing too. Like these two languages are ancient ones, Sanskrit too is an ancient language; and, in addition Sanskrit is the mother of the family of all Indo-European languages. You possibly cannot have any objection if these young students in this North East part of India are encouraged under Gurus to learn Sanskrit as aprentice.

You have many grievances against India and its people. You say in your article:

“Hindu nationalism rarely made headlines in the West until the 1990s, when images of communal riots and chanting B.J.P. supporters introduced many Americans to the idea that there was another, different kind of fundamentalism to worry about in South Asia. But as a political force, Hindu nationalism predates India’s independence in 1947 and reflects centuries of resentment among the subcontinent’s Hindu majority. Hindus submitted reluctantly to waves of Muslim conquest from the north starting almost a thousand years ago, and then to almost 300 years of British domination. After World War I, when the British Empire started to crack, some Hindu ideologues saw an opportunity to regain the upper hand. They began calling for an explicitly Hindu state and society, in which Muslims (and other minorities) would be tolerated only if they respected the majority culture. In one respect, it was an effort to counter political Islam, which was already gaining adherents in India and elsewhere in the early 1920s. But building a cohesive movement was not easy. Classical Hinduism is more a conglomeration of sects than a single religion; it has many ancient scriptures but no single, foundational text, like the Bible or the Quran. Its ancient caste hierarchy perpetuated divisions and did not translate easily into the unifying slogans of modern mass politics.”

Dear Robert your grievance is, “After World War I, when the British Empire started to crack, some Hindu ideologues saw an opportunity to regain the upper hand. ….. But building a cohesive (Hindu) movement was not easy. Classical Hinduism is more a conglomeration of sects than a single religion; it has many ancient scriptures but no single, foundational text, like the Bible or the Quran. Its ancient caste hierarchy perpetuated divisions and did not translate easily into the unifying slogans of modern mass politics.” You are parroting the Sheldon Pollock’s “thesis” when you say, “Classical Hinduism is more a conglomeration of sects than a single religion”, which thesis is being used as a tool for the “Break India” project. We dare say, by subscribing to this imaginative “Pollock Thesis” you definitely place yourself as the part of this “Break-India” project.

You parrot these words – without knowing their meaning. What is your knowledge of Hinduism? Is Hinduism a religion? What is a religion? How many sects are there among Hindus and what do they teach? Is there a common connecting thread in all these sects? It is a serious matter and you need a life-time to learn it. It is very easy to say that since Hinduism does not have a single book like the Bible or the Koran, it is not a religion or it is a conglomeration of sects. What is the definition of ‘religion’? With common sense, one may say it a matter of the relation of humans with God. How does the possession of a single holy book, like Bible or Koran, become the testing anvil for being declared a religion? Are you aware that the Bible and Koran have their own and exclusive God / Allah? Which one of the two is correct? Will it be decided by swords, or inquisitions, or strength of number of people converted to one’s side? Will it not be more correct to say that these two peoples possessing two books are sects, which are different from one another, while these “Hindu conglomeration of sects” do not contradict each other or fight with each other?

In case you have wish and will, you can discover for yourself that all the sects among Hindus are one on the central connecting point. Please, do not be hateful to Hindus.

You continue in your supposedly intellectual tirade against India. You said:

“In an effort to overcome these internal fissures, the early Hindu nationalists built a regimented anticolonial social movement in the 1920s, which later formed links with Italian and German fascism; the main branch was known as the RSS, from the Hindu words for “national organization of volunteers.” In place of black shirts and armbands, they wore khaki shorts and carried bamboo sticks. This association tainted them in the decades that followed, especially after so many British and Indian soldiers died fighting the Axis powers in World War II. Another serious blow came in 1948, when a Hindu nationalist zealot assassinated Mohandas Gandhi, modern India’s saintly father figure. Afterward, Nehru, Gandhi’s political heir, suppressed Hindu nationalist organizations and fostered his own countervailing conception of India as a pluralist, secular state. Although he was a Brahmin, Nehru was a passionate cosmopolitan who saw Hindu identity as narrow and tribal. He wanted India to be defined by its diversity, not by any one faith. It was an idea shaped in part by his British education at Harrow, Cambridge and the Inns of Court in London, and one shared by many of his peers. For decades after independence, India’s ruling class was mostly a “thin layer of brown Englishmen,” in the phrase of an Indian friend of mine who heard it from his grandfather, a friend of Nehru’s. They were patrician figures who rebelled successfully against the British but absorbed many of their ideas about how the country should be governed.

By the 1990s, Nehru’s Congress party had become almost synonymous with the Indian state, but his tolerant, worldly vision was starting to fray. The Hindu nationalist movement anointed the B.J.P. as its political vehicle, and the party slowly gained strength, fueled by perceptions of corruption and entitlement in the secular political elite.”

So, dear one, here comes your master stroke. You open your heart that is full of hate for Hindus. You say:

Early Hindu nationalists “later formed links with Italian and German fascism; the main branch was known as the RSS, from the Hindu words for ‘national organization of volunteers.’ In place of black shirts and armbands, they wore khaki shorts and carried bamboo sticks. This association tainted them in the decades that followed, especially after so many British and Indian soldiers died fighting the Axis powers in World War II” and if we make no mistake you mean here Subhash Chandra Bose, an iconic leader of Indian people then, both Hindus and Muslims. So, the RSS is no less in its design and mission than the Italian and German Fascism, except that the Indian variety wears khaki shorts and carried bamboo sticks in place of the Germanic ‘black shirts and armbands’!

Dear Robert, you are not naive not to know that Subhash Candra Bose was never a part of RSS (he was a Congress party member – and once its president) and that German fascism asserted Aryan supremacy by the strength of arms, war on other ‘inferior’ peoples and their subjugation to the ‘pure and Aryan’ Germans. Hitler had his ‘Mein Kampf” to guide him. Do you need to be told by us that the RSS has Gita in its hand, and not ‘Mein Kampf ‘ of Hitler? It (RSS) believes, as taught by Gita, that in every living being – including human beings – there is an ‘Atma’ (not ‘soul’, that goes to sleep after death), which has its right to do its ‘karma’ as it wills and nobody has any right to kill any person (the body that this ‘Atma’ wears like we wear cloths). This is the difference between the RSS of India and Fascism of Italy and Germany. This difference – the difference between Gita and ‘Mein Kampf’ – makes them pole apart. Surely, you could not have missed this difference. We request you not spread canard against Hindus.

You seem to be not content with this much reviling of Indians, their faith and their state. Enough is not enough for you. You nurse a grudge against Hinduism, which you cannot resist. Your tirade continues:

“This narrative about yoga’s ancient roots has become a sacrament for Hindu nationalists, and it is echoed in the West. But it is mostly myth, an idealized origin story of the kind so many would-be nation-builders, from ancient Rome to the Zionists, have fostered about themselves. The oldest Hindu scriptures contain almost no mention of physical postures. Even the Yoga Sutras, the so-called bible of yoga, include only a few short verses suggesting comfortable postures for sitting. Many of the postures practiced in yoga today appear to have emerged in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Dozens of modern ashtanga yoga postures are similar or identical to those found in a gymnastic routine introduced to India by the British in the first decades of the 20th century and originally developed by a Danish fitness instructor named Niels Bukh, who later became notorious for his pro-Nazi sympathies. Bukh, needless to say, has been conveniently forgotten by both Indians and the yoga-loving celebrities of Hollywood.”

Your grudge is that the narrative of “yoga’s ancient roots” has become a sacrament for Hindus and even in the West. You proclaim that it is a “myth”; that the “oldest Hindu scriptures” make no mention of physical postures of yoga; that the Yoga Sutras include “only a few short verses” suggesting comfortable postures for sitting. And, then in your zeal to demolish this narrative of the olden roots of yoga, you declare, “Dozens of modern ashtanga yoga postures are similar or identical to those found in a gymnastic routine introduced to India by the British in the first decades of the 20th century and originally developed by a Danish fitness instructor Niels Bukh, who later became notorious for his pro-Nazi sympathies.” Thus, according to you the ashtanga yoga is recently sourced out of the Danish fitness instructor Niels Bukh!

When was ‘Yoga Sutra’ written? In this Sanskrit treatise, in the very first opening verse the definition of Yoga is given: Yoga is the disciplining of one’s psychological proclivities. But why discipline them? There is a purpose for that. Physical postures are the ‘means’ and not the ‘end’ in themselves; these have nothing to do with physical fitness – as you dear Robert or Niels Bukha might have thought. Physical postures are not the substance of Yoga. Yoga is something else, far removed from your imagination of physical fitness. And, it is a very old discipline; tons of old Sanskrit sacred books deal with this subject.

Robert F. Worth, as an admirer of Christian Missionaries work of conversion in India, has a great resentment against those Indians who try to re-convert the “converted Christians” to their thousands of years old faith. He says:

“The RSS has become more visible since Modi’s 2014 victory. The group and its affiliates have built hundreds of schools and job-training centers in Assam and other northeastern states in recent years. I visited several and saw unmistakable signs of the RSS ideological program. At one school, young children — some of whom had been raised Christian — recited Hindu prayers and sang songs to Lord Ram before starting their lessons, which include Sanskrit instruction.”

If children have been raised as Christians by handing them over Bible and praying to God, what is the objection of Robert F. Worth if those children are handed over a Ramayana in their other hand and compare the two to chose from? We suppose that the author knows that in this part of India in 1901, the Christian population was 00.50 % and now in 2001 it became 90%. Wow, dear Robert for you, who has objection to children praying to Rama, an incarnation of Divine, instead of God, the father of His only son Jesus Christ of Bible. If he does not know this conversion “achievement” of Christian Missiontaries in this part of India, let him visit this link and educate himself.

https://indianpeoplescongress.wordpress.com/2018/05/02/how-nehru-helped-convert-ne-to-christianity/

What is that which makes the likes of Robert F. Worth and the New York Times fear the new dispensation in India? It is not the alleged Hindu nationalism but something else. This fear of the types of Robert F. Worth and his New York Times is exposed by an American accounts professor at a seminar sponsored by CFA (Chartered Financial Accounts Association of America). The American accounts professor is talking  in this video about Modi’s clean governance and says that his commerce and diplomatic policies are superior to those of USA and that USA must fear him.

Watch the video:

This offending article may be read at this link:

https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/26/magazine/the-billionaire-yogi-behind-modis-rise.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=second-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news

एच. वी. एस. राठी

भारत की आत्मा गांव में बसती है, ऐसा कहा जाता है। गांव के लोग प्रकर्ति की गोद में रहने वाले स्वाभाव से भोले भाले होते हैं।  अब हम तरक्की कर गए हैं, पर पहले लोग सीधे सादे होते थे। इतिहासकारों ने कहा है कि अति प्राचीन समय से ही भारत के गांव के लोग आपस में सहयोग से रहने वाले लगभग आज़ाद “रिपब्लिक” (गणतंत्र ) होते थे।  हमने बहुत कुछ पाया है , पर हमने बहुत कुछ खो दिया है।  हमने “बाहर” बहुत कुछ पा लिया पर “अंदर” सब कुछ खो दिया है।  उस खोये हुए की केवल याद ही बाकी बची है।  कभी कभी खोयी हुई चीजों की याद भी अच्छी लगाती है।  कुछ यादें :

ढूंढते रह जाओगे!!
लुगाईयाँ का घाघरा
खिचड़ी का बाजरा

सिरसम का साग
सर पै पाग
आँगण मै ऊखलयय
कूण मै मूसल

ढूंढते रह जाओगे!!
घरां मै लस्सी
लत्ते टाँगण की रस्सी
आग चूल्हे की
संटी दुल्हे की
कोरडा होली का
नाल मौली का
पहलवानां का लंगोट
हनुमानजी का रोट

ढूंढते रह जाओगे!!
घूंघट आली लुगाई
गाँम मै दाई
लालटेण का चानणा
बनछटीयाँ का बालणा
बधाई की भेल्ली
गाम मै हेल्ली
घरां मै बुड्ढे
बैठकाँ मै मुड्ढे

ढूंढते रह जाओगे!!
बास्सी रोटी अर अचार
गली मै घूमते लुहार
खांड का कसार
टींट का अचार
काँसी की थाली
डांगरां के पाली
बीजणा नौ डांडी का
दूध दही घी हांडी का
रसोई मै दरात
बालकां की दवात

ढूंढते रह जाओगे!!
बटेऊआँ की शान
बहुआं की आन
पील गर्मियां मैं
गूँद सर्दियाँ मैं
ताऊ का हुक्का
ब्याह का रुक्का
बोरला नानी का
गंडासा सान्नी का
कातक का नहाण
मूंज के बाण

ढूंढते रह जाओगे !!
चूल आली जोड़ी [ किवाड़ ]
गिनती मै कौड़ी
कोथली साम्मण की
रौनक दाम्मण की
पाटड़े पै नहाणा
पत्तल पै खाणा
छात्याँ मै खडंजे अर कड़ी
गुग्गा पीर की छड़ी

ढूँढते रह जाओगे !!
लूणी घी की डली
गवार की फली
पाणी भरे देग
बाहण-बेटियां के नेग
मोटे सूत की धोत्ती
घी बूरा अर रोटी
पीले चावलाँ का न्यौता
सात पोतियाँ पै पोत्ता
धौण धड़ी के बाट
मूँज – जेवड़ी की खाट
घी का माट
भुन्दे होए टाट

ढूंढते रह जाओगे!!
गुल्ली – डंडे का खेल
गुड की सेळ
ब्याह के बनवारे
सुहागी मैं छुहारे
ताँगे की सवारी
दूध की हारी
पेचदार पगड़ी
घोट्टे आली चुन्दडी
सर पै भरोट्टी
कमर पै चोट्टी
ढूढ़ते रह जाओगे !!
कासण मांजन का जूणा
साधूआँ का बलदा धुणा

गुग्गे का गुलगला

बालक चुलबला
बोरले आली ताई
सूत की कताई
मुल्तानी अर गेरू
बलध अर रेहडू
कमोई अर करवे
चा – पाणी के बरवे
ब्याह मै खोड़िया
बालकां का पोड़िया

ढूंढते रह जाओगे !!
हटड़ी अर आला
बुडकलाँ की माला
दूध पै मलाई
लोगाँ कै समाई
खेताँ मै कोल्हू
नामाँ मै गोल्हू

ढूंढते रह जाओगे
गुड़ की सुहाली
खेताँ मै हाली
हारे की सिलगती आग
ब्याह मै पेठे का साग
हाथ का बँटा बाण
सरगुन्दी आली नाण
हाथ मै झोला
खीर का कचोला
ड्योढ़ी की सोड

बंदडे का मोड़ [सेहरा ]
खेत में बैठ के खाना,
डोल्ला का सिरहाना,
लावणी करती लुगाईया,
पानी प्याती पनहारिया,
डेला नीचे खाट,
भाटा के बाट,

ढूंढते रह जाओगे !!
सिर मैं भौरी
अणपढ़ छौरी
चरमक चूँ की जूती
दुध प्यांण की तूती
मावस की खीर
पहंडे का नीर
गर्मियां मैं राबड़ी
खेताँ मैं छाबड़ी
घरां मैं पौली
कोरडे की होली
चणे के साग की कढी
चाबी तैं चालदी घडी
काबुआ कांसी का
काढ़ा खांसी का
काजल कौंचे की
शुद्धताई चौंके की
गुलगला बरसात का
चूरमा सकरात का
सीठणे लुगाइयाँ के
नखरे हलवाईयाँ के
ढूंढते रह जाओगे !!

इस भाषा को पश्चमी उत्तर प्रदेश के पुराने लोग आसानी से समझ सकते हैं।

By: Rajib Bhuyan

The Assam Accord was signed in the year 1985. Amongst the several provisions of this Accord, there was a clause “to detect and deport all illegal migrants”. For that it was paramount to prepare a correct and updated National Register of Citizens for Assam so that the names of all illegal migrants are struck off the list.

But sadly, like most other provisions of this Accord, this provision was consigned to cold storage. So much so that in 1992, the then Congress Chief Minister of Assam, Shri Hiteswar Saikia announced that there was not a single illegal migrant in Assam.

In the year 2006, a desperate group of patriotic Assamese decided to approach the Supreme Court of India seeking it’s intervention on the matter. The moving force behind this appeal to the highest Court of the land was an elderly couple of Assam: Mr Pradip Bhuyan and his wife, Mrs Banti Bhuyan.

Pradip Bhuyan himself drafted the first prayer before the Supreme Court bench. Advocates who read this draft termed it as masterly, epoch making. The old couple spent huge amounts of their personal savings in fighting the case and finally got the Supreme Court of India to direct the Central Govt of India and the State Govt of Assam to prepare the NRC, within a definite time frame.

Neither the UPA govt at the Centre nor the Congress led State Govt in Assam were ready to undertake this onerous task.

But this old couple along with the organisation called the Assam Public Works kept on relentlessly pursuing the matter. They had to run from pillar to post, making frequent trips to Delhi, wading through the huge mass of tangled bureaucracy in the Supreme Court, getting dates and attending hearings till finally in Dec, 2014, they got the Highest Court in the land to pass the necessary directions for updating the NRC in a time bound manner.

Yesterday’s publication of the final draft NRC is a tribute to this couple’s tremendous fight for justice for our people and our country.

The couple keeps an extremely low profile, shuns any form of media publicity, lead highly private lives. They stayed away from the TV channels yesterday and quietly went about their lives.

The people of Assam owe a huge debt of gratitude to them. India as a nation owes a huge debt of gratitude to them. Our warmest regards and best wishes to both of them and pray to the Lord Almighty for their continued good health and long years of blissful togetherness.

This is the position of Assam. What about many of such illegal foreigners living in other parts of India? Every country in the world has an inventory of its citizens and keeps a vigil that not a single person enters its territory without a proper permission (visa) and documentation. But India since its truncated birth in 1947 has been a welcome land for illegal entry by anyone who wished to come here, get a ration card, occupy land and overload its limited resources, in addition to defile its democratic institutions.

Parmanand Pandey, Secretary General: IPC

Parmanand Pandey, Secretary General: IPC

It is often said that ‘don’t speak against any dead person’. But can this logic be applied to demons like Ravan, Kans, Duryodhan or monsters like Hitler, Mussolini, Changez Khan, Mahmud of Ghazni or Mao Dezong?

If there is a saying, “Speak no ill of the dead” then there is another saying of the equal strength, “Truth must be told”. Speaking truth is an onerous duty and it must be discharged, howsoever unpalatable it might be.

M. Karunanidhi, a doyen of Tamil politics for more than 60 long years, passed away the day before yesterday at the old age of 94. He was like a comet on the political firmament of Tamil Nadu politics for more than 60 years. He had committed certain egregious and Himalayan blunders that the posterity will never forgive him. He was the person who drove a wide wedge between the North and the South, which will take many more years to bridge.

The first and foremost disservice of Karunanidhi for the country was to create hysteria against Hindi among Tamilians. It is because of him that Tamil Nadu people could not assimilate themselves with the rest of the country for a long period of time. His hostility towards Hindi was in the extreme. In fact, he thrived on the anti-Hindi politics and created so much bitterness for a language like Hindi that was accepted with open arms by Tamilians. Even Raja ji (C Rajagopalachari), who was in the forefront of popularising Hindi in south India was capitulated by persons like Karunanidhi to become indifferent towards Hindi. It was he and his Guru Annadurai, who propounded the theory of ‘Dravid’ and ‘Aryans’ which is totally fake, unrealistic and highly superficial.

It is difficult to understand his hatred for Upper caste Hindus except for the vote bank politics that he pursued. He was born in the community of Nadaswaram (percussionists), who get their livelihood because they beat drums outside the temples. Although, he claimed to be an Atheist, yet he was highly superstitious and used to wear a yellow shawl ( angavastram) throughout his life to ward off evil forces. His way of mocking, chiding and ridiculing particularly the Brahmins was in extremely bad taste. When there was the case being heard in the Supreme Court on Ram Setu, he shot from his hip by asking a preposterous question like from which engineering college Lord Ram had got His degree which qualified Him to become an engineer to make a Setu? But Karunanidhi did not have the courage to utter even a word against any other religion which is enough to make him a suspect of rationalism. Hindus were like a punching bag for him.

Karunanidhi had hardly any respect for his political adversaries and he always spoke most uncharitably against Indira Gandhi or J. Jayalalitha. Shankaracharya was falsely implicated and arrested by J. Jayalalitha in a case of murder only because of the one-upmanship of M. Karunanidhi, who had threatened that if the Pontiff was not arrested he would launch a statewide agitation against the Brahmin Chief Minister. As a result of it, Shankaracharya was arrested but was honourably exonerated.

Karunanidhi had been a hypocrite throughout his life. He had the weakness for women and had children from at least his three wives. His aversion for Brahmins did not prevent him from bringing a bride for his family from the famous clan of Brahmins, who are the owners of the Hindu newspaper.

He was responsible for the deterioration of the relationship between India and Sri Lanka. He left no stone unturned in whipping up the feeling of Tamil Eelam among Srilankan Tamils compelling the late Rajiv Gandhi to send the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Northern Sri Lanka for establishing peace in Jaffna and Batticaloa. These areas were burning because of the ethnic Tamil agitation. Hundreds of Jawans and officers of Indian Army were killed for nothing unwept, unsung. Despite the best intentions of winning the hearts of Tamil people, the poor Rajiv Gandhi remained a sore in their eyes and ultimately the good-hearted (Rajiv Gandhi) was killed by Tamil terrorists.

It was Karunanidhi who started the many obnoxious schemes of doling out gifts in cash and kind to people for their votes. He was also responsible for opening up the substandard engineering, medical and law colleges where one could get a degree of his/her choice on payment of hefty capitation fees. However, credit goes to his craftiness that despite being a parochial leader he had his presence felt at the national level. It is an open secret that he and his family was sunk deep into corruption from top to toe yet he is being paid tributes in a manner as he was a great visionary.

How pathetic is the condition of the media in our country which is awash only with Karunanidhi since yesterday? Four brave soldiers of the Indian Army, including a Major, were killed in Kashmir while defending the motherland but the news of their supreme sacrifices has been consigned to corners in both print and electronic media. It is beyond anybody’s comprehension why the newspapers and electronic channels of northern India have gone berserk over Karunanidhi, where his following was almost next to nil? How sensitive is our media to the brave martyrs for the country is not far to seek? After all, Karunanidhi was in the moribund state for more than two years.

By: Shreepal Singh

Nature has created man and man has not created Nature. But man is arrogant. And, ignorant too. He would not admit Nature is alive – it retaliate to its man-handling and abuse, just like living beings do.

Just watch these videos of flood fury in Kerala, India. Kerala is a part of this planet Earth.

What happens to Kerala, shall happen to you – wherever you may be living on Earth. It shall surely happen, if not in the Kerala-way in some another way – not less dangerous.

Why did it happen to people – innocent people – living in Kerala? Why will it happen to you, to us, to all of us?

Because we have invited this; we are inviting it on us.

We are arrogant and ignorant, and we would not admit it. But it is true.

A chain reaction! What we do, comes back to us. As we sow, so shall we reap.

Just look at the dam: it was flooded in with waters more than it could hold and its all gates or shutters had to be opened to release water to lower its pressure; but it proved no solution to the problem of relentless torrential rains.

We 》 Our unlimited demands 》 Assault on Nature 》 Equilibrium of Nature is disturbed 》 Climate change accelerates 》 Floods, draughts, Protective Ozone layer deplition, more Carbon in atmosphere, rising temperature on Earth, fighting for depleting resources, struggle against each other for survival   ….. too many after-effects to count 》 Deaths of life and mayhem on Earth

Watch these videos. And, after watching them – if possible for you – minimize your needs and demands. As you sow, so shall you reap.

By:  Wing Commander Sudarshan

It was in the early eighties, we started our flying training in Air Force Station Bidar in Karnataka.

The training was on Basic trainer aircraft called Hindustan Trainer-2 (HT-2). The Training schedule was tough both physically and mentally. There was fear of elimination at each stage of training. The first round of elimination takes place when the instructor feels that you can not go ‘SOLO’. Then that Cadet gets two more flights extension, may be with a different instructor. If there is improvement and if the Chief Flying Instructor feels confident of sending him ‘Solo’, he is sent on a solo flight or else he returns home. Then look out for new career options. After getting past the first hurdle there was a brief respite, but just for a short while. Subsequently every stage of training, be it, Aerobatic maneuvers Formation flights, Night Flying, Flying by Instruments and Navigation technique..at every stage there was fear of failure and imminent threat of returning home. After getting through all these phases successfully then comes the Mother of All Tests.. the Final Test (FT). It use to be a nerve wracking experience to watch your friends, not able to cope up with the rigours of training and go home. Some would just succumb to the shear stress and despair…and just quit. What worried us then was the ignominy of returning home and tell my near and dear ones that I couldn’t make it. To admit..that I failed is not easy.

In one of the pockets of my flying suit, I always use to carry a palm sized book titled “Powerful Speeches of Swami Vivekananda”.

Whenever the sense of insecurity use to creep in, I would just sit in a quiet corner, read a paragraph from the book, close my eyes and meditate for a while and overcome the fear of failure. It worked like a miracle. I sailed through the various stages of training and Lo and Behold… .I was going to fly with Chief Flying Instructor for my FT… the mother of all tests.

The day didn’t start well.. for, it was a sleep deprived, groggy morning I woke up to. It was still dark when I started cycling to the technical area. My flight was planned for an early morning Take off. The briefing board has to be prepared after obtaining information about weather, ATC information etc. I was not able to concentrate on anything. Kept touching the pocket in which palm sized Vivekananda’s book was kept. Praying all the time…give me courage, strength.. don’t let me fail.

Just then, saw from a distance CFI approaching for the briefing. He was a tall hefty sardar. A very affectionate figure, use to call every Cadet…myson…bacche…kaake.
He was coming with another tall and younger sardar. A very handsome and charming personality. What was unusual about him was the colour of his beard…he was almost blonde!

Wished both of them in attention…my voice was shaky and squeaky. I was trying my level best to appear confident but it was just not happening.

CFI put his hand on shoulder and said.
“Beta there is some error in your flying hours.. you have to do another thirty five minutes flight before your FT ….toh abhi, just do a short flight with Blondie….I mean with Flight Lieutenant Kahlon, whatever you want to do feel free, he will not interfere, so enjoy the flight and then I will fly with you, that will be your FT”

God was so kind to me and at once I was completely relaxed. Wow..I get to fly a sortie, out of syllabus!

Flt Lt Kahlon put an assuring hand on my shoulder and said… Let’s go.

A unique tradition of Air Force is to call each other by nicknames.. specially amongst the pilots. I was SUDY..to my fellow pilots, my friend saxena was…sexy always, even his wife called him like that! Gupta was always Goofy, Banerjee was a banjo, Chatterjee was a Chato, Sundaram was a Sandy…etc. So this tall, handsome, blonde sardar was called ‘Blondie’.

Another unique tradition of Air Force is
” Guru Shishya Parampara” amongst the pilots. During training the hard task master would get angry, abuse, even hit on your oxygen mask, shake you by the shoulders….but he is your mentor, guide, friend and philosopher for ever…rest of your life in Airforce and beyond.

As the sun rose on the Eastern horizon of Bidar.. we were airborne.

This was not an instructional flight. I started with a steep turn tightening the gut muscle and shouting aloud..so that I shouldn’t blackout. Following it with a loop and a Barrel roll. No word, no criticism, no correction from behind and I got emboldened…it was pure peacock dance in the sky. After an exhaustive but not exhausting flight, we landed back just a minute after stipulated thirty five minutes.
I continued to stay in the cockpit while the instructor switch took place. My FT began and I passed.

Few years later, to be precise, on 03 November 1984… I having crossed all the hurdles of Air Force training, now the staff pilot of a Prestigious Unit in Central Air Command, got a message from Flt Lt Kahlon ( Blondie) that..can he take a lift in my Aeroplane flying from Delhi to Chandigarh.

“Come on sir. anything for you” I said .. I owe you a lot for that surprise flight which I feel, saved me..my life… now it is my turn to reciprocate you.

Mrs Indira Gandhi was assassinated just Four days ago by her own Security guards. Whole country was in turmoil. Entire Armed Forces we’re activated. Sad… the gloomy environment was unbearable.

Even in that sad state of affairs, I was excited. Excited because I was about to meet a person who had etched a long lasting impression on my mind in that thirty five minutes flight…I had never seen him earlier or later. I am going to see him now.

But he didn’t come, my wait could not be prolonged, I was duty bound. We took off . Took off without him.

When we returned to Delhi the next day, we were told an Airforce officer was burnt alive in the vicinity of Palam airport … only next day to our shocked souls, we realised that it was Blondie Kahlon .. The entire Air Force mourned the death of an Airforce Pilot.
The Congress goons had no mercy for a Soldier.

Why did you… Rajiv Gandhi in whichever hell you now reside and your bloody goons … kill my GURU?

By: Shrikant G. Talageri

This article is borrowed with thanks from, and can be read at, HERE

Note: This article was intended to be purely informative, and to serve no purpose other than pointing out three uniquely special features of Indian numbers and numerals. But, inevitably, I found one more strong piece of evidence to confirm the OIT (Out-of-India Theory of Indo-European Origins) which is so irrefutably established by the textual, linguistic and archaeological evidence.

Numbers and numerals form an important, even a vital, part of life. This point is too elementary to waste time here in elaborating why it is so. The fact is that India occupies a unique place in the whole world in the field of numbers and numerals, and the purpose of this article is to place these unique features on record:

1. The Concept of Numbers.
2. The Written Numeral System.
3. Indo-Aryan Numbers.

1. THE CONCEPT OF NUMBERS

The very idea of numbers is something which seems very natural to us. But is it really so? Incredible though it may appear to us, there are some very primitive or simple languages in the world which do not even have concepts or names for numbers up to ten (the number of fingers on a human pair of hands, which would seem to be the natural base for counting). This is mainly so among the Australian aboriginal languages. The following examples of some Australian aboriginal language numbers will make this clear:

Nunggubugu:

1. anyabugij.
2. wulawa.
3. wulanybaj.
4. wulal wulal.

There are no number words beyond four.

Kamilaroi:

1. mal.
2. bular.
3. guliba.
4. bular bular.
5. bular guliba.
6. guliba guliba.

There are specific number words for numbers up to three, and the same words are combined to produce numbers from four to six, at least.

Gumulga:

1. urapon.
2. ukasar.
3. ukasar urapon.
4. ukasar ukasar.
5. ukasar ukasar urapon.
6. ukasar ukasar ukasar.

This language has specific number words for one and two, and these are combined to produce numbers from three to six.

A related language Mabuiag has similar words from one to six:

1. urapun.
2. okosa.
3. okosa urapun.
4. okosa okosa.
5. okosa okosa urapun.
6. okosa okosa okosa.

And then there is a number word for seven and any other number after 7:

7 or 7+. ras.

There are apparently a few rare languages in the extreme isolated portions of areas within Papua-New Guinea, interior Africa and Patagonia (the southern half of South America) which have similar structures in which the numbers do not go beyond six or ten and are based on words from one to three.

But India represents the world in microcosm: here we have the simplest and most primitive number system in the world even as late as the twentieth-twenty-first century CE, as well as the most developed and elaborate number system in the world even as early as during the Vedic period (extending back beyond 3000 BCE, or, even as per the now discredited AIT (Aryan Invasion Theory) version of Vedic history, to 1200 BCE).

The simplest and most primitive number system in the world (the word “primitive”, it must be emphasized here, is not a deprecatory word) is found in the Andaman islands in India. Formerly (as per older colonial records, and I have myself quoted them in an earlier article) it was believed in fact that the Andamanese languages had numbers only for one and two. However, it appears this is not so.

The following are the number words in the Aka-bea-da (Greater Andamanese) language, which only has words from one to five:

1: obatul.

2: ikpaurda.

3: edarobai.

4: eijipagi.

5: arduru.

But an even simpler and more primitive form of number system, the simplest and most primitive form in the world, is found in the Onge language, which has numbers only from one to three, and any number above that is represented by a word ilake which does not mean “four” but specifically means “many”:

1: yuwaiya.

2: inaga.

3: irejidda.

On the other hand, as early as the Vedic Samhitas, we had words in India for very high numbers. The Yajurveda, for example, in the course of a hymn (Yaj.17.2), casually lists the following words for numbers from ten (10¹ or 10) to one trillion (10¹² or 1,000,000,000,000):

10¹: daśa.

10²: śata.

10³: sahasra.

10⁴: ayuta.

10⁵: niyuta.

10⁶: prayuta.

10⁷: arbuda.

10⁸: nyarbuda.

10⁹: samudra.

10¹⁰: madhya.

10¹¹: anta.

10¹²: parārdha.

It is obvious that while, for ritual purposes, the enumeration in this hymn stops at 10¹², logically there is clearly an understanding of the infinite nature of this mathematical series and of the idea that these are just the first steps in an infinite series of numbers each being a multiple of the previous number by ten. This becomes apparent from countless references and number words in the ancient Vedic and Sanskrit texts, but most particularly in certain texts which play with mathematical ideas. For example, the Lalitavistara, a Buddhist text, actually describes an even more elaborate system (where some of the above words from the Yajurveda are now replaced by other words, and all the names are given in multiples of hundred. Here in fact some of the above words, like ayuta and niyuta, are given higher values):

10³: sahasra.

10⁵: lakṣa.

10⁷: koṭi.

10⁹: ayuta.

10¹¹: niyuta.

10¹³: kaṅkara.

10¹⁵: vivara.

10¹⁷: akṣobhya.

10¹⁹: vivāha.

10²¹: utsāṅga.

10²³: bahula.

10²⁵: nāgabala.

10²⁷: tiṭilambha.

10²⁹: vyavasthānaprajñāpti.

10³¹: hetuhila.

10³³: karaphū.

10³⁵: hetvindriya.

10³⁷: samāptalambha.

10³⁹: gaṇanāgati.

10⁴¹: niravadya.

10⁴³: mudrābala.

10⁴⁵: sarvabala.

10⁴⁷: visaṁjñāgati.

10⁴⁹: sarvasaṁjña.

10⁵¹: vibhūtaṅgamā.

10⁵³ : tallakṣaṇa.

The text does not stop there: it points out that this is just the first of a series of nine counting systems that can be expanded geometrically, and then goes on to mention the names of the culmination points of each of the nine systems(starting with the number 10⁵³ above, as tallakṣaṇa, dhvajāgravatī, dhvajāgraniśāmaṇī, vāhanaprajñapti, iṅgā, kuruṭu, kuruṭāvi, sarvanikṣepa and agrasārā), culminating in a large number,  10⁴²¹, or one followed by 421 zeroes!This text, and many other Sanskrit texts, go even further in indulging in flights of fantasy involving even higher numbers. The point is not whether such incredibly high numbers could possibly serve any practical purpose: obviously they could not! The point is that the ancient Indian theoretical concept of numbers had a vision which was limitless.

India therefore occupies a unique position in the world: on the one hand, it has even in the twenty-first century the Onge language with no number words of its own beyond three (i.e. the simplest number system in the world), and on the other, it had even in ancient times:

a) number words for numbers as high as 10⁵³, and, in theory, even as high as 10⁴²¹, and in further theory, going into unimaginably and fantastically high numbers beyond even that;

b) the concepts of zero, finite numbers and infinity (and, in Jain texts, even different categories of what are now called transfinite numbers);

c) the concept of fractions (found even in the Rigveda, in the Puruṣa sūkta, Rig.X.90.3,4);

d) the concept of negative numbers.

[All this is apart from the highly developed state of almost every branch of Mathematics in ancient India].

B. THE WRITTEN NUMERAL SYSTEM

Numbers (at least till three) are found in every language in the world. A written numeral system is something different from the mere concept of numbers. The numeral system used all over the world today is the system invented in India. In popular parlance, this is often described as follows: “India invented/contributed the zero“. But this is an extremely haphazard statement, at least when it comes to the importance of India in the history of numerals: the zero was also (at much later dates) independently invented in ancient Mesopotamia and Mexico (the Mayans). Also, it is quite a silly way of putting it. It sounds like some old-time fable: all the ancient civilizations of the Old World got together and decided “let us invent/contribute numbers“. China announced that it was contributing the numbers one, four and six. Egypt announced it was contributing two, three and nine. Mesopotamia announced it was contributing five, seven and eight. India, a little slow off the mark, was left with nothing to contribute. Then, the Indian representative had a brilliant idea: he immediately invented the zero, and announced “we contribute zero“!

The fact is, zero is just one essential part of the whole of the present day decimal numeral system which is used all over the world and which was invented/contributed by India and which is also the basis for the binary system which is used in computers (with a change of base from ten to two) . Numeral systems were independently invented by every highly developed civilization in the world: Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Mexico and India. Most of the other civilizations of West Asia and Mediterranean Europe derived or developed their own numeral systems based on the Egyptian system. The numeral system of each civilization provides an indication of the stage of development of mathematical logic in each civilization, as we will see, and the Indian system represents the highest stage of development: the Egyptian system represents the first systematic stage of development, the Chinese system represents the second systematic stage of development, and the Indian system represents the third and final systematic stage of development.

The very idea of numbers contains the first seeds of any numeral system. We can imagine different societies from the most primitive times which had numbers (at least up to three in the simplest and most primitive system) but did not have any method of recording numbers in the form of a written numeral system.

The first primitive stage of recording numbers must have started in a pictorial form. In a primitive society, a man possessing, for example, 12 cows and 5 sheep thought of recording the fact by drawing 12 pictures of a cow and 5 pictures of a sheep. The very concept of representing numbers in writing (albeit pictorial) is the characteristic of this first stage.

In the second primitive stage, as society became larger and more complicated, the concept of numbers must have evolved from the concrete to the abstract. Thus, finding it tiresome to draw 12 pictures of a cow and 5 pictures of a sheep, the man in a society at a more developed stage conceived the idea of representing each unit by an abstract picture (most logically a simple vertical or horizontal line): thus 12 lines followed by the picture of a cow, and 5 lines followed by the picture of a sheep. The concept of abstract numbers, as opposed to numbers as an intrinsic aspect of some concrete material unit, is the characteristic of this second stage.

In the third primitive stage, as the number of units became much larger and more cumbersome, it would be tiresome to keep track of the number of individual pictures. Draw a series of 152 vertical lines in a row and try to count them again, to see how clumsy it would be and how susceptible to counting errors! This must have led to the evolution of numbers from the individual unit to the collective unit. This can be seen even today in a system of keeping scores which is still quite commonly used: after four vertical strokes to indicate four scores, the fifth stroke is a horizontal stroke drawn across the earlier four strokes, indicating five or a full hand. After that the sixth score is recorded by another vertical stroke at a little distance from the first hand. The concept of an abstract unit consisting of a collection of a certain fixed number of individual abstract units is the characteristic of this third stage.

[This fixed number was different in different primitive societies: the most common, natural and logical number was ten in most societies since human beings have ten fingers on the hands for counting, but it could also be (and was so in some societies) five (one full hand) or twenty (the total number of fingers on both hands and feet). If human beings had had twelve fingers instead of ten, the natural numeral system would have been mathematically even more effective, since twelve is divisible by two, three, four and six, while ten is divisible only by two and five. And it would also have fit in with some other aspects of nature, such as the twelve months in a natural year, the twelve tones in a natural octave, etc.].

From this point start the three systematic stages of development of the numeral system:

1. The Egyptian numeral system represents the first stage of development. This stage involves the invention of a continuous recurring base. The base (as in most cultures) is ten. The main problem in any numeral system that was solved by the Egyptian system was the repetition of symbols beyond nine times. The Egyptian system had one symbol for one, another for ten, another for hundred, and so on, for subsequent multiples of ten (see chart). Each symbol could be repeated as many as nine times to represent the next number in the series. Thus to write 4596, first the symbol for thousand was repeated four times, then the symbol for hundred five times, then the symbol for ten nine times, and finally the symbol for one six times:

The symbols for 1 (10⁰), 10 (10¹), 100 (10²), 1,000 (10³), 10,000 (10⁴), 100,000 (10⁵), and 1,000,000 (10⁶), respectively are as follows:

1 (10⁰)

10 (10¹)

100 (10²)

1,000 (10³)

10,000 (10⁴)

100,000 (10⁵)

1,000,000 (10⁶)

4596:

4096:

4006:

2. The Chinese numeral system represents the second stage of development. Like the Egyptian system, it has symbols to represent the numbers one, ten and multiples of ten. But it eliminated the need to repeat these symbols from two times to nine times to represent multiples of the symbols. The logic used was the same as the logic involved in replacing the twelve pictures of a cow (in the primitive stage explained earlier) with twelve abstract symbols for one (usually a vertical line) followed by the picture of a cow. Here the repetitions of the symbol were replaced by new symbols representing the number of repetitions. That is, any symbol (one, ten, hundred) required to be repeated only in eight ways: twice, three times, four times, five times, six times, seven times, eight times or nine times. The Chinese system therefore also invented eight new symbols to represent the abstract numbers two to nine, and merely placed the new symbols before the original symbols (ten, hundred, etc.) as required in representing any number. Thus to write 4596, the Chinese would place the following symbols in the following order: four, thousand, five, hundred, nine,ten, six. The following chart shows some of the Chinese numerals (a sixth century book gives these symbols from 10² to 10¹⁴, see below, but in practice, the Chinese followed, and still follow, in cases where the traditional numbers are still used, different systems of combinations of symbols to express large numbers. In this, many of the symbols given below have much larger values in modern usage):

1-9:     一   二   三   四   五   六   七   八   九

10¹:     十

10²:     百

10³:     千

10⁴:      萬

10⁵:     億

10⁶:     兆

10⁷:     京

10⁸:     垓

10⁹:     秭

10¹⁰:    穰

10¹¹:    溝

10¹²:    澗

10¹³:    正

10¹⁴:    載

Thus:

4596:    四 千 五 百 九 十 六

4096:    四 千 九 十 六

4006:    四 千 六

3. The Indian numeral system represents the third and final stage of development. The Chinese system had eliminated the need for repeating symbols from two to nine times to represent the next number in any series, but the system still required a fresh symbol to represent each next multiple of ten (i.e. 10², 10³, 10⁴…). The Indian system, by using a fixed positional system and a symbol for zero, eliminated this need to invent an endless number of symbols and made it possible to represent any finite number without any limit by a simple system of ten symbols (1-9 and 0).                                                                                           1. १                                                                                                                                                 2. २                                                                                                                                                 3. ३                                                                                                                                                 4. ४                                                                                                                                                   5. ५                                                                                                                                                 6. ६                                                                                                                                                   7. ७                                                                                                                                                 8. ८                                                                                                                                                 9. ९                                                                                                                                                   0. 0

The shapes of the actual symbols used do not matter: the numeral symbols are different in different Indian languages, and even the “Devanagari” numeral symbols in Hindi and Marathi, for example, have noticeably different shapes. The Indian numeral system was borrowed by the Arabs, who gave the symbols different shapes again, and later by the Europeans from the Arabs with other similar changes in the shapes. It may be noted, moreover, that some of the Devanagari (Sanskrit) numerals, which were the ultimate basis for the shapes of the symbols in all the other systems, clearly bear some resemblance to the initial letters of the respective Sanskrit number words:   १ (ए),   ३ (त्र),   ५ (प),  ६(ष).

The binary system used in computers is a direct derivative of the Indian decimal system, with a change of base from ten to two: so, while the Indian decimal system has ten symbols (nine number symbols and a zero), the binary system has two symbols (one and zero), and the place values from the right to the left are not 1, 10, 100, 1000…. as in the decimal system, but 1, 2, 4, 8, 16…. .

Thus, in the binary system:

4596:  1,000,111,110,100.

4096:  1,000,000,000,000.

4006:  111,110,100,110.

Clearly, while the binary system is useful in the world of computers, the decimal system is more practical for the daily use of human beings.

Now, if the Egyptian, Chinese and Indian systems represented the three logical stages in the development of a logical and practical numeral system, what did the numeral systems of the other civilizations represent? They represented deviations from the logical line of thinking, which is why their systems ultimately failed to acquire the universality of the Indian system.

1. The Babylonian numeral system:

The Babylonian (Mesopotamian/Cuneiform) numeral system, to begin with, had symbols for one and ten, and derived the numbers in between accordingly by repetitions:

 The numbers for 1-10 are as follows:

(for image see the original article)

The symbols for the tens numbers were also formed by repeating the symbol forten.

The numbers for 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60:

(for image see the original article)

And here was the catch: although the Babylonians had symbols for one and ten, their numeral system was not a decimal system (i.e. with a base of ten): it was a unique sexagesimal system (i.e. with a base of sixty)! Therefore their place values from the right to the left were not 1, 10, 100, 1000…. as in the decimal system, but 1, 60, 3600, 72000…. . Therefore, the symbol for one also served as the symbol for sixty, three thousand six hundred, seventy-two thousand, etc., depending on its position from the right in a composite numeral. The Babylonian system had three main faults:

1. Just as the binary system (howsoever vital to computers and cyber technology) is too small for normal human usage, a sexagesimal system was too large and unwieldy for human usage and computation.

      2. To be effective even as a sexagesimal system, it should have had sixty symbols                  (for the numbers from one to fifty-nine, and one for zero), but it only had symbols             for one and ten. Of course, the symbols, as we can see above, were joined                             together, but that did not really improve matters. And, even if there had been sixty             different symbols, it would still have been too large and unwieldy for common                   human use.

3. It did not have a symbol for zero. Therefore, it was not clear whether the symbol for one, all by itself and without being a part of a larger composite numeral, represented one or sixty or three thousand six hundred or seventy-two thousand or something bigger. In the Indian system, you can distinguish not only between 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc. because of the zeroes, but also between 40006, 40060, 40600, 46000, 4006, 4060, 4600, 406, 460 and 46. In the Egyptian and Chinese systems, even without the zero, all these numbers could be distinguished because the “position” of each individual number in the composite numeral was distinguished by a different symbol (for ten, hundred,thousand, etc.). The Babylonian system, although it was effectively used by the Babylonians for their different purposes, was a very faulty system in which, for example, not only could the same symbol represent 1, 60, 3600, 72000, etc., but the same combination of symbols could represent, to take the simplest example, 3601, 3660 and 61.

[Later in time, a zero symbol was invented, but it was not really properly understood, and was used only at the end of a composite numeral].

To continue the same examples of the numbers already seen in the other systems, the Babylonian system would write them as follows:

4596: (1 x 3600,   16 x 60,   36 x 1):

(for image see the original article)

4096: (1 x 3600,    8 x 60,     16 x 1):

(for image see the original article)

4006: (1 x 3600,     6 x 60,     46 x 1):

(for image see the original article)

2. The Mayan numeral system:

Like the Babylonian numeral system, the Mayan (Mexican) numeral system also was not a decimal system (i.e. with a base of ten): it was a vigesimal system (i.e. with a base of twenty). Basically it had only three symbols, for one, five and zero, and the other numbers between one and twenty were written by repetitions of symbols.  The Mayans also, thus, had discovered the principle of using a zero symbol. The place values in this system, (written not from the right to the left as in other systems, but from the bottom to the top), were not 1, 10, 100, 1000…. as in the decimal system, but 1, 20, 400, 8000…. (at least we must assume this theoretically here for the moment for our study of the numeral system, but this was not strictly accurate as we will see presently). The symbols from one to nineteen were as follows:

The numbers 1-10:

(for image see the original article)

The numbers 11-19:

(for image see the original article)

The number 20:

(for image see the original article)

The Mayan system was basically a marvelous one: it had a strict positional system as well as a fully-developed zero concept and symbol; but it suffered from certain faults:

1. To be fully effective as avigesimal system, it should have had twenty symbols (for the numbers from one to nineteen, and one for zero), but it only had symbols for one, five and zero. The numbers in between one and twenty were written by repetitions of the symbols for one and five.
2. For religious reasons, to fit in with the (roughly) 360 days in the calendar, the Mayans tweaked the base of the vigesimal system, so that instead of the place values in this system (written from the bottom to the top) being 1, 20, 400, 8000, 160000…. as in a regular vigesimal system, they were 1, 20, 360, 7200, 144000…. . In short, there was a break in the regularity of the recurring base at the very second multiple, so that the third place from the bottom represented 360 instead of 400, and after that all the subsequent bases continued at multiples of twenty: The numbers for 1, 20, 360, 7200, 144,000, and 2,880,000 are as follows:

1.

(for all images see the original article)

20.

360:

7,200:

144,000:

2,880,000:

We have already seen certain numbers written in all the numeral systems discussed so far. The following are their forms in the Mayan numeral system:

4956: (13 x 360) + (13 x 20) + (16 x 1):

(for all images see the original article)

4906: (13 x 360) + (11 x 20) + (6 x1):

4006: (11 x 360) + (2 x 20) + (6 x 1):

3. The Egyptian-derived Mediterranean and West Asian Numeral Systems:

The Egyptian numeral system that we have already examined (called the Hieroglyphic numeral system) was adopted by the Greeks, and from the Greeks by the Romans, with modifications. The Egyptian Hieroglyphic numeral system, as we have seen, was at the first stage of development of a logical and complete system of numerals. But unfortunately, instead of developing it in the right direction and reaching at least the second stage of development, as for example represented in the Chinese numeral system, the Greeks and the Romans went off at a tangent from the logical line of development in trying to simplify and “develop” the Hieroglyphic numeral system.

At the same time, the Egyptians themselves “developed” another system of numerals, distinct from the earlier system, called the Hieratic numeral system. This system was adopted by the Greeks (and called the Greek Ionian numeral system in opposition to the earlier Greek Attic numeral system derived from the Egyptian Hieroglyphic numeral system) and by all the other prominent civilizations and cultures of the Mediterranean area and West Asia (including the Israelites and the Arabs) except the Romans. This represented another “development” at a tangent from the logical line of development:

a) The Attic Greek numeral system: The Greeks adopted the Egyptian Hieroglyphic numeral system, replacing the Hieroglyphic symbols with Greek letters (being the first letters of the respective Greek numbers), as follows:

The numbers 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000:

 Ι       Δ        Η       Χ        Μ

The first ten numbers 1-10 should naturally have been written as follows:

Ι     Ι Ι      Ι Ι Ι     Ι Ι Ι Ι     Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι     Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι     Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι     Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι     Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι     Δ

However, the Greeks decided to simplify or “develop” the numeral system to reduce the number of repetitions of a symbol within a compound numeral. Their solution was to invent mid-way symbols between 1, 10, 100, 100, 10000, etc., as follows:

The numbers 5, 50, 500, 5000, 50000:

(for all images see the original article)                          

Therefore, the Greek symbols for the first ten numbers 1-10 were as follows:

Ι     Ι Ι     Ι Ι Ι     Ι Ι Ι Ι           Ι       Ι Ι      Ι Ι Ι      Ι Ι Ι Ι        Δ

The three numbers that we saw in the different systems already described would appear as follows in the Greek system:

4596:    Χ Χ Χ Χ  Δ Δ Δ Δ  Ι

4096:    Χ Χ Χ Χ  Δ Δ Δ Δ  Ι

4006:    Χ Χ Χ Χ Ι

b) The Roman numeral system: The Romans adopted the Attic Greek numeral system, providing their own symbols for the Greek ones:

1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000, 5000, 10000, 50000, 100,000:

I     V     X     L     C     D     M     V     X     L     C

[The numbers 5,000 onwards have a horizontal line above the symbol, but due to lack of such a font, the symbols here have been underlined]

However, the Romans decided to “develop” the system further. They found even four repetitions of a symbol within a compound number (as in IIII for four and VIIII for nine) too much, and decided to reduce the fourth repetition by introducing a minus-principle: instead of having the bigger number followed by the smaller number four times, they decided to place one symbol of the concerned smaller number before the bigger number to indicate “minus one”. Thus:

1-10:

I      II      III      IV      V      VI      VII      VIII      IX      X

Tens 10-100:

X      XX      XXX      LX      L      LX      LXX      LXXX      XC      C

Hundreds 100-1000:

C     CC     CCC     CD     D     DC     DCC     DCCC     CM     M

1000:

M

And so on. The three numbers already shown in the other systems would appear as follows in the Roman numeral system:

4596:   MVDXCVI

4096:   MVXCVI

4006:   MVVI

1. The Hieratic numeral system: The Egyptians themselves invented another new numeral system, a sort of shorthand numeral system, where they had nine symbols for the numbers 1-9, nine symbols for the numbers 10-90, nine symbols for the numbers 100-900, and so on, based on the letters of the Hieratic script. This numeral system was then adopted by the Ionian Greeks, using the symbols of their alphabets to represent the numbers. The Hieratic numerals and the Ionian Greek numerals are shown in the charts below:

The same system was also adopted by almost all the cultures and civilizations of the Mediterranean area and West Asia (except the Romans), including the Arabs and the Israelites, using the symbols of their respective alphabets.

This exposition of the numeral systems of the world makes it clear why the Indian numeral system was universally adopted all over the world, and all the other numeral systems fell into disuse (although still used as secondary symbols in scholarly works or for other particular and restricted purposes, as for example the Roman numeral system in western academic and religious works or a much-modified Chinese numeral system in China).

1. INDO-ARYAN NUMBERS

One aspect of Indian numbers which is not generally recognized is that the numbers in the Indo-Aryan languages of North India have one feature (though not exactly a positive feature) which makes them unique among all the languages of the world: they are probably the only languages in the world where anyone learning the language (any North Indian Indo-Aryan language) necessarily finds that he has to individually learn or memorize every single number from one to hundred.

To understand this fully, one must first understand the methods by which the different world languages form their numbers 1-100. We will examine the subject under the following heads:

C-I. Sexagesimal systems (with a base of 60).

C-II. Quindecimal systems (with a base of 15).

C-III. Vigesimal systems (with a base of 20).

C-IV. Decimal systems (with a base of 10) with words for 1-10  and  100.

C-V. Decimal systems (with a base of 10) with words for units 1-9  and tens  10-100.

C-VI. Decimal systems (with a base of 10) with words for numbers  1-19 and tens 20-100.

C-VII. Decimal systems (with a base of 10) with words for numbers  1-100.

C-VIII. Historical Implications of the Indo-Aryan number system.

C-I. SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEMS (WITH A BASE OF 60):

The sexagesimal system (with a base of 60, although with a subset of 10) is very rare, and we will look at it before moving on to the two main systems. I can personally think of only one language today with such a system (probably also found in some related neighboring languages), though the ancient Mesopotamians (Sumerians/ Akkadians/ Assyrians, etc., who were the only ones to use a sexagesimal numeral system) may have had sexagesimals in the spoken number system as well. This rare language is the Masai language, belonging to the NiloSaharan/Sudanic language family, and spoken in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania in east Africa. The numbers are as follows:

1-9: nabu, ari, üni, ungwun, miet, elle, nabishäna, issiet, nawdu

10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60: tomon, tigitum, ossom, arrtam, orrnom, ïp

70, 80, 90, 100, 110: ïp–tomon, ïp–tigitum, ïp–ossom, ïp–arrtam, ïp–orrnom

Other numbers in between 10-60 are formed by the tens word followed by the following secondary forms of 1-9:  obbo, are, ogüni, ungwun, oimiet, oīille,nabishäna, oissiet, nawdo

sexagesimals 60, 120, 180, 240, etc: ïp, ari-ïp, üni-ïp, ungwun-ïp, etc. (60, 2×60, 3×60, 4×60, etc.)

Other numbers above 60: sexagesimal (60, 120, etc) followed by 1-59. Thus:

11 is tomon-obbo (10+1), 99 is ïp ossom-nawdo (60+30+9), 179 is ari-ïp orrnom-nawdo (60×2+50+9).

C-II. QUINDECIMAL SYSTEMS (WITH A BASE OF 15):

Unlikely though it seems, there is even a language with a quindecimal system, i.e. with a base of 15 (and it does not even have a subset of 10)! This is the Huli language of Papua New Guinea, belonging to the Papuan language family. The possible origin of such a system (as also the above sexagesimal system) is hard to pinpoint: perhaps it is based on the number of days in a lunar fortnight.

The numbers are as follows:

1-14: mbira, kira, tebira, maria, duria, waragaria, karia, halira, dira, pira,bearia, hombearia, haleria, deria

15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105 (and so on): ngui-ra, ngui-ki, ngui-tebo, ngui-ma,ngui-dau, ngui-waraga, ngui-ka (and so on, i.e. 15×1, 15×2, 15×3, etc.).

16-29: nguira-ni-mbira….nguira-ni-deria (i.e. 15+1 to 15+14)

Other numbers between the quindecimals are counting according to the serial position: e.g. the numbers 31-44 belong to the “third series of 15” culminating in 45, the numbers 46-59 belong to the “fourth series of 15” culminating in 60, etc. The names of the series (covering the numbers upto 100) are as follows:

third series 31-45: ngui-tebone-gonaga   (45: ngui-tebo)

fourth series 46-60: ngui-mane-gonaga   (60: ngui-ma)

fifth series 61-75: ngui-dauni-gonaga   (75: ngui-dau)

sixth series 76-90: ngui-waragane-gonaga   (90: ngui-waraga)

seventh series 91-105: ngui-kane-gonaga   (105: ngui-ka)

Other numbers (between the quindecimals) 31 onwards: previous quindecimal + new series (to which the following unit belongs) + unit number. Thus 31: ngui-ki ngui-tebone-gonaga mbira. (i.e. 30+third-series+1)

99: ngui-waraga ngui-kane-gonaga dira (i.e. 90+seventh-series+9).

The Huli numbers are complicated because of two things:

1. The odd (to everyone else in the world, except the speakers of Huli) base of 15.
2. The illogical addition of the series name (based actually on the name of the following quindecimal) between the previous quindecimal and the unit: thus, 31 could well have simply been ngui-ki mbira (30+1) and 99 could have been ngui-waraga dira (90+9).

However, the first complication is part of this rare system, and the second one can be eliminated as shown above, and (even if it isn’t eliminated, still) we get a very regular quindecimal system.

C-III. VIGESIMAL SYSTEMS (WITH A BASE OF 20):

Vigesimal number systems are those which are based on 20, although they usually have a subset of 10. To learn the numbers, one necessarily has to memorize the numbers 1-19, the vigesmals/tens numbers from 20-100, and the regular procedure for forming the other in-between numbers.

The two characteristics of these languages are:

1. The vigesimal numbers 40, 60, 80, and sometimes 100, are based on the word for 20.
2. The other numbers are formed by adding the numbers 1-19 to the vigesimals.

In a few languages, the numbers 1-19 are based on an internal subset not of ten but of five. The most perfect example of this is the Turi language from the Austric (Austro-Asiatic) family, spoken in the adjoining parts of Jharkhand-W. Bengal-Orissa in India, which shows this subset of five very clearly, with the words for 5, 10 and 15 literally meaning “one hand”, “two hands” and “three hands” respectively. Another example is the Nahuatl/Aztec language of Mexico:

Turi (Austric-KolMunda):

1-5: miad, baria, pea, punia, miadti

6-10: miadti-miad, miadti-baria, miadti-pea, miadti-punia, baranti

11-15: baranti-miad, baranti-baria, baranti-pea, baranti-punia, peati

16-19: peati-miad, peati-baria, peati-pea, peati-punia

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: lekacaba, bar-lekacaba, pea-lekacaba, punia-lekacaba,miadti-lekacaba

Other numbers: vigesimal numbers 20, 40, 60 or 80 followed by 1-19. Thus:

21: lekacaba miad (20+1), 99: punia-lekacaba peati-punia (4×20+19).

[Khmer (Cambodian), which also belongs to the Austric family, also originally had this subset of five, but the language now uses numbers borrowed from the unrelated Thai language for numbers beyond 10. The Khmer numbers 1-10 are:

muǝy, pii, bǝy, buǝn, pram, pram-muǝy, pram-pii, pram-bǝy, pram-buǝn,dap].

Nahuatl/Aztec (Amerindian):

1-5: ce, ome, yey, naui, macuilli

6-10: chica-ce, chic-ome, chicu-ey, chic-naui, matlactli

11-15: matlactli-on-ce, matlactli-on-ome, matlactli-on-yey, matlactli-on-naui, caxtulli

16-19: caxtulli-on-ce, caxtulli-on-ome, caxtulli-on-yey, caxtulli-on-naui

20, 40, 60, 80, 100:  cem-poualli, ome-poualli, yey-poualli, naui-poualli,macuil-poualli

Other numbers: vigesimal numbers followed by (the word) on and the numbers 1-19. Thus:

21: cem-poualli on ce (20+on+1), and 99:  naui-poualli on caxtulli-on-naui(80+on+19).

[on-ce can be shortened to oce].

The majority of vigesimal systems, however, have a sub-set of 10. These number systems are found in every continent (except perhaps Australia). Some examples from the Caucasian, Basque, Burushaski, Ainu, Niger-Congo, Austric/Austro-Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan and the Ameridian-superfamily language-families:

Georgian (Caucasian):

1-10: erti, ori, sami, otxi, xuti, ekwsi, šwidi, rwa, ҫxra, ati

11-19: tertmeti, tormeti, ҫameti, totxmeti, txutmeti, tekwsmeti, cwidmeti,twrameti, ҫxrameti

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: oҫi, ormoҫi, samoҫi, otxmoҫi, asi

Other numbers: vigesimal + 1-19 with the ending oҫi of the first word becomingoҫda. Thus:

21: oҫda erti (20+1), 99: otxmoҫda ҫxrameti (80+19).

[Note: x is pronounced “kh”].

Euskara/Basque (Basque):

1-10: bat, biga, hirur, laur, bortz, sei, zazpi, zortzi, bederatzi, hamar

11-19: hameka, hamabi, hamahirur, hamalaur, hamabortz, hamasei,hamazazpi, hamazortzi, hemeretzi

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: hogei, berrogei, hiruetanogei, lauetanogei, ehun

Other numbers: vigesimal + ta + 1-19. Thus:

21: hogei ta bat (20+ta+1), 99: lauetanogei ta hemeretzi (80+ta+19).

 Burushaski (Burushaski):

1-10: hǝn, ālto, ůsko, wālto, tsůndo, mıšīndo, tǝlo, āltǝmbo, hůnčo, tōrůmo

11-19 tůrma + 1-9.

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: āltǝr, ālto-āltǝr, īski-āltǝr, wālti-āltǝr, thā

Other numbers: vigesimal + 1-19 (but before the words tōrůmo and tůrmapreceded by the word ga). Thus:

21: āltǝr hǝn (20+1),  90: wālti-āltǝr ga tōrůmo, (80+ga+10), 99: wālti-āltǝr ga tůrma hůnčo (80+ga+19).

Ainu (Ainu):

1-10: shine, tu, re, ine, ashikne, iwan, arwan, tupesan, shinepesan, wan

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: hotne, tu-hotne, re-hotne, ine-hotne, ashikne-hotne

30, 50, 70, 90: wane-tu-hotne, wane-re-hotne, wane-ine-hotne, wane-ashikne-hotne

(literally, 30 is “ten-less-than-forty”, etc).

Other numbers (including 11-19): unit + ishama + tens. Thus:

11: shine ishama wan (1+ ishama+10), 21: shine ishama hotne(1+ishama+20), 99: shinepesan ishama wane-ashikne-hotne(9+ishama+90).

Mende (NigerCongo):

1-10: yira, fere, sawa, nani, lolu, woita, wofela, wayakpa, tau, pu

11-19: pu-mahũ-yira (10-mahũ-1) etc.

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: nu-yira-gboyongo, nu-fere-gboyongo, nu-sawa-gboyongo, nu-nani-gboyongo, nu-lolu-gboyongo

Other numbers: vigesimal + 1-19. Thus:

21: nu-yira-gboyongo mahũ yira (20-mahũ-1), 99: nu-nani-gboyongo mahũ pu-mahũ-tau (80-mahũ-19).

Savara/Saora (Austric-KolMunda):

1-10: bo, bagu, yagi, uñji, molloi, tuḍru, gulji, tamji, tiñji, galji

11: galmui, 12: miggal, 13-19: miggal-aboi (13: 12+1), etc.

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: bo-koḍi, bagu-koḍi, yagi-koḍi, uñji-koḍi, molloi-koḍi

Other numbers: vigesimal + 1-19. Thus:

21: bo-koḍi bo (20+1), 99: uñji-koḍi miggal-gulji (80+12+7).

[A special word is aboi instead of bo for 1 in the number 13]

Shompeng (Austric-Nicobarese):

1-10: heng, au, luge, fuat, taing, lagau, aing, towe, lungi, teya

11-19: heng-mahaukoa-teya (1+mahaukoa+10), etc.

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: heng-inai, au-inai, luge-inai, fuat-inai, taing-inai

Other numbers: vigesimal + 1-19. Thus:

21: heng-inai heng (20+1), 99: fuat-inai lungi-mahaukoa-teya(80+mahaukoa+19).

Lepcha/Rōng/Sikkimese (SinoTibetan-Tibetic):

1-10: kāt, ñat, sām, falī, fango, tarak, kakyak, kaku, kakyōt, katī

11-19: katī kāt-thāp (10+1+thāp), etc.

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: khā-kāt, khā-ñat, khā-sām, khā-falī, gyo-kāt (20×1, 20×2, 20×3, 20×4, 100×1)

Other numbers: vigesimal + sa + 1-19. Thus:

21: khā-kāt sa kāt-thāp (20×1+sa+1+thāp), 99: khā-falī sa kakyōt-thāp(20×4+sa+9+thāp).

[Note: The word thāp is dropped after katī, 10. Thus 30 is khā-kāt sa katī].

Garo (SinoTibetan-Tibetic):

1-9: sa, gini, gittam, bri, boṅga, dok, sini, cet, sku

10, 20, 30: ci, korgrik, koraci

Other numbers 11-39: tens+unit. Thus 11, 21, 31, etc.: ci-sa, korgrik-sa,koraci-sa, etc.

40, 60, 80, 100: korcaṅ-gini, korcaṅ-gittam, korcaṅ-bri, ritca-sa

Other numbers 41-99: vigesimal + 1-19. Thus:

41: korcaṅ-gini sa,  99: korcaṅ-bri ci-sku

Welsh (IndoEuropean-Celtic):

1-10: un, dau, tri, pedwar, pump, chwech, saith, wyth, naw, deg

11-15 un-ar-ddeg, deuddeg, tri-ar-ddeg, pedwar-ar-ddeg, pymtheg

16-19 un-ar-bymtheg, dau-ar-bymtheg, tri-ar-bymtheg, pedwar-ar-bymtheg

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: hugain, deugain, triugain, pedwarugain, cant

The numbers from 21-99 are regularly formed by the numbers 1-19 + ar +vigesimal (here the units come first. Note, in Old English also, the units came first, as in the nursery rhyme “four-and-twenty blackbirds“). Thus:

21: un ar hugain (1+ar+20) and 99: pedwar-ar-bymtheg ar pedwarugain(19+ar+80).

Irish (IndoEuropean-Celtic):

1-10: aon, dō, trī, keathair, kūig, sē, seakht, okht, naoi, deikh

11-19: aon-dēag (1+10), etc.

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: fikhe, dā-fhikhid, trī-fhikhid, kheithre-fhikhid, kēad

Other numbers: the numbers 1-19 + is + vigesimal (here also the units come first). Thus:

21: aon is fikhe, 99: naoi-deag is kheithre-fhikhid (19+is+80).

[But the language also alternatively retains the original  Indo-European tens numbers:

10, 20, 30, etc: deikh, fikhe, trīokha, daikhead, kaoga, seaska, seakhtō,okhtō, nōkha, kēad].

French (IndoEuropean-Italic) [but only partially]:

1-10: un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq, six, sept, huit, neuf, dix

11-19: onze, douze, treize, quatorze, quinze, seize, dix-sept, dix-huit, dix-neuf

20-100: vingt, trente, quarante, cinquante, soixante, soixante-dix, quatre-vingts, quatre-vingt-dix, cent

The numbers from 21-99 are generally formed as follows, e.g. 20: vingt, 1: un,21: vingt et un

The et (“and”) only comes before un, otherwise 22 vingt-deux, etc.

But note the words for 70, 80 and 90 mean “60+10”, “4×20” and “4×20+10” respectively. So the numbers 71-79 are soixante et onze, soixante-douze, (60+11, 60+12) etc., and the numbers 91-99 are quatre-vingt-onze, quatre-vingt-douze, (4×20+11, 4×20+12) etc. (81-89 are the normal quatre-vingt-un,quatre-vingt-deux, etc.).

It is very likely that this sub-system of 20, found in the Indo-European family only in French and in the Celtic languages may be due to the influence of Basque.

Yucatec/Mayan (Amerindian):

1-10: hun, ca, ox, can, ho, uac, uc, uaxac, bolon, lahun

11-19: buluc, lahca, ox-lahun, can-lahun, ho-lahun, uac-lahun, uuc-lahun,uaxac-lahun, bolon-lahun

20, 40, 60, 80, 100: kal/hun-kal, ca-kal, ox-kal, can-kal, ho-kal

30, 50, 70, 90: lahu-ca-kal, lahu-ox-kal, lahu-cankal, lahu-hokal (10 less than 40, etc.).

Other numbers:

21-39 (except 30): 1-19 + tu kal. Thus: 21 is hun tu kal (1+tu+20).

Other numbers (after 40, except the actual non-vigesimal tens numbers 50,70,90, etc., where the word tu is dropped): 1-19 + tu and the followingvigesimal. Thus:

41 is hun tu ox-kal (1 below 60), 99 is bolon-lahun tu ho-kal (19 below 100).

[Some additional, but not necessary, euphonic variations in speech are:

1. a) 15,ho-lahun, is sometimes contracted toho-lhun
2. b) ayis sometimes inserted between a word ending in u and a following ox orho. Thus: lahu-oxkal and lahu-hokal (50 and 90) become lahu-y-oxkal andlahu-y-hokal, and similarly hun tu ox-kal, 41, becomes hun tu y-ox-kal]
3. c) lof lahun is dropped before tu. Thus bolon-lahun tu kal, 39, becomes bolon-lahu tu kal]

[Note: This is important since the Mayans were the only people to invent a vigesimal numeral system. Hence also, perhaps, the system of forming the other numbers (21-99) is slightly less regular or more complicated (but still explicable by certain rules]

[Note: the x is pronounced “sh” and the c as well as k as “k”].

Yupik (EskimoAleut):

1-10: atauciq, malruk, pingayun, cetaman, talliman, arving-legen, malrung-legen, pingayun-legen, qulngunritaraan, qula.

11-19: qula-atauciq, qula-malruk, qula-pingayun, akimiarunrita’ar, akimiaq,akimiaq-ataucik, akimiaq-malruk, akimiaq-pingayun, yuinaunrita’ar

vigesimals 20, 40, 60, 80, 100: yuinaq, yuinaak-malruk, yuinaat-pingayun,yuinaat-cetaman, yuinaat-talliman

Other numbers: vigesimal + 1-19. Thus:

21: yuinaq atauciq,  99: yuinaat-cetaman yuinaunrita’ar

C-IV. DECIMAL SYSTEMS (WITH A BASE OF 10) WITH WORDS FOR 1-10 AND  100

Decimal number systems are those which are based on 10. The simplest types of decimal systems are those where, to learn the numbers, one necessarily has to memorize the numbers 1-10, and the number 100, and the regular procedure for forming the other in-between numbers.

Typical examples of these numbers are found in the major languages of the Sino-Tibetan family [The sign after each word shows the tone: low, rising, falling, etc.]:

Chinese Mandarin (SinoTibetan-Sinitic):

1-10: yi_ , erh, sān‾, szә, wu, liu, ch’i_ , pā_ , chiu, shih_

tens 20-90: erh shih_ , etc.          100: bai

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 11: shih_ yi_ ,  21: erh shih_ yi_ ,  99: chiushih_ chiu

 Thai/Siamese (SinoTibetan-Sinitic):

1-10: hnïng_ , sɔng, sām, sī_ , hā, hok_ , chet_ , bpɛt_ , kɔ, sip_

tens 20-90: sɔng sip_ , etc.          100: hnïng_ rɔy

Other numbers: tens+unit.

Thus 11: sip_ hnïng_,  21: sɔng sip_ hnïng_,  99: kɔ sip_ kɔ

Tibetan (SinoTibetan-Tibetic):

1-10: gchig, gnyis, gsum, bzhi, lnga, drug, bdun, brgyad, dgu, bchu

tens 20-90: gnyis bchu, etc.          100: brgya

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 11: bchu bchig,  21: gnyis bchu gchig,  99:dgu bchu dgu

[Note: the initial letter in lnga is small  L, not capital i]

Burmese (SinoTibetan-Tibetic):

1-10: tit, hnit, sũ, le, ngā, cowk, khuhnit, shit, kɔ, ta-cheh

tens 20-90: hnit-cheh, etc.          100: ta-yā

Other numbers: tens+hnin+unit.

Thus 11: ta-cheh hnin tit,  21: hnit-cheh hnin tit,  99: kɔ-cheh hnin kɔ

Abor-Miri (SinoTibetan-Tibetic):

1-10: ā, ānyī, āūm, āpī, ānga, ākheng, kīnit, pinyī, kanāng, ēing

tens 20-90: ēing-ānyī, etc.          100: ling

Other numbers: tens+lāng+unit. Thus 11: ēing lāng ā,  21: ēing-ānyī lāng ā, 99: ēing- kanāng lāng kanāng

[Note: the suffix -ko is attached at the end of every composite number. Thus: 1:ā-ko,  10: ēing-ko,  11: ēing lāng ā-ko,  20: ēing-ānyī-ko ,  21: ēing-ānyī lāng ā-ko,  99: ēing-kanāng lāng kanāng-ko]

Some languages of the Austric family:

Santali (Austric-KolMunda):

1-10: mit’, bar, pɛ, pon, mɔrɛ, turūi, ēāe, irәl, arɛ, gɛl

tens 20-90: bar-gɛl, etc.          100: mit-sae

Other numbers: tens+khān+unit.

Thus: 11: gɛl khān mit’,  21: bar-gɛl khān mit’,  99: arɛ-gɛl khān arɛ

[Alternately, the other numbers can be formed without inserting the word khān]

Vietnamese (Austric-MonKhmer):

1-10: mot_ , hai, ba, bôn, nǎm, sau, bay, tam, chin, muoi

tens 20-90: hai muoi, etc.          100: mot_ trǎm

Other numbers: tens+unit.

Thus 11: muoi mot_ ,  21: hai muoi mot_ ,  99: chin muoi chin

Khasi (Austric-MonKhmer):

1-10: ši, ār, lāi, sāw, sàn, hinrīw, hinniew, p’rā, k’ündāi, ši-p’ew

tens 20-90: ār-p’ew, etc.          100: ši-spå

Other numbers: tens+unit:  Thus 21: ār-p’ew ši,  99: k’ündāi-p’ew k’ündāi

Some languages of the Austronesian family:

Hawaiian (Austronesian):

1-10: akahi, alua, akolu, aha, alima, aono, ahiku, awalu, aiwa, umi

20: iwak-alua,  30-90: kan-akolu, etc.          100: haneli

Other numbers: tens+kumam+unit.

Thus: 11: umi kumam-akahi 21: iwak-alua kumam–akahi, 99: kan-aiwakumam-aiwa

Some languages from African families:

Hausa (SemitoHamitic-Hamitic):

1-10: daia, biu, uku, fudu, biar, shidda, bakoi, takos, tara, goma

tens 20-90: gomia-biu, etc.          100: dari

Other numbers: 11-17, etc.: tens+sha+unit. Thus 11: goma sha daia,  21:gomia-biu sha daia

18-19: following tens+gaira+biu/daia (i.e. following tens-minus-2/1). Thus:

18: gomia–biu gaira biu (20-minus-2),  99: dari gaira daia (100-minus-1).

Wolof (NigerCongo):

1-10: ben, nīar, nīat, nīanit, jiūrum, jiūrumrumben, jiūrum-nīar, jiūrum-nīat,jiūrum-nīanit, fūk

tens 20-90: nīar-fūk, etc.          100: tēmēr

Other numbers: tens+a+unit. Thus 11: fūk a ben,  21: nīar-fūk a ben,  99:jiūrum-nīanit-fūk a jiūrum-nīanit

Fulani (NigerCongo):

1-10: goo, zizi, tati, nayi, joyi, jeegom, jeezizi, jetati, jenayi, sappo

20: noogas,     tens 30-90: capanze-tati, etc.          100: temedere

Other numbers: tens+e+unit.

Thus 11: sappo e goo,  21: noogas e goo,  99: capanze-jenayi e jenayi

Namagua-Hottentot (Khoisan):

1-10: ckui, ckam, qnona, haka, kore, qnani, hû, xkhaisi, goisi, disi

tens 20-100: ckam-disi, etc.          [even 100: disi-disi]

Other numbers: tens+unit+ckha.

Thus: 11: disi ckui-ckha,  21: ckam-disi ckui-ckha,  99: goisi-disi goisi-ckha

[the four letters c, v, q, and x represent four different types of clicking sounds. Clicking sounds as part of the language are unique in the whole world to the Khoisan languages, though some non-Khoisan neighboring languages like Zulu have also borrowed this feature from them]

Some languages from the Amerindian super-family of languages from America:

Quechua/Inca (Amerindian):

1-10: huk, iskay, kimsa, tawa, pisqa, suqta, qanchis, pusaq, iskun, chunka

tens 20-90: iskay–chunka, etc.  100: pachak

Other numbers: tens+unit+yuq/niyuq [-yuq after vowel,-niyuq after consonant. final y in 2 is consonant]. Thus:

11: chunka–huk–niyuq, 13: chunka kimsa–yuq, 99: iskun–chunka iskun–niyuq

Guarani  (Amerindian):

1-10: peteĩ, mokoĩ, mbohapy, irundy, po, poteĩ, pokoĩ, poapy, porundy, pa

tens 20-90: mokoĩ-pa, etc.          100: sa

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 11: pa peteĩ,  21: mokoĩ-pa peteĩ,  99:porundy-pa porundy

Tarahumara (Amerindian):

1-10: bire, oka, beka, nawo, mari, usani, kichao, osanawo, kimakoi, makoi

tens 20-90: oka-makoi, etc.          100: makoi-makoi

Other numbers: tens+wamina+unit. Thus:

11: makoi wamina bire,  21: oka-makoi wamina bire,  99: kimakoi-makoiwamina kimakoi

Tonkawa (Amerindian):

1-10: wē’isbax, gedai, med’is, sigid, gasgwa, sikwālau, sigidyē’es,sikwē’isxw’ēl’a, sikbax

tens 20-90: sikbax-‘āla-gedai, etc.          100: sendo-wē’isbax (borrowed from Spanish)

Other numbers: tens+‘en+unit+‘en.    Thus 11: sikbax-‘en wē’isbax-‘en,

21: sikbax-‘āla-gedai-‘en wē’isbax-‘en,  99: sikbax-‘āla-sikwē’isxw’ēl’a-‘ensikwē’isxw’ēl’a-‘en

Zuñi (Amerindian):

1-10: t’opa, kwili, ha’i, awiten, apte, t’opaleqä, kwilileqä, ha’eleqä, tenaleqä,astemła

tens 20-90: kwili-qän-astemła, etc.          100: asi-astemlä

Other numbers: tens+unit+yäłto.  Thus 11: astemła t’opa-yäłto,  21: kwili-qän-astemła t’opa- yäłto,  99: tenaleqä-qän-astemła tenaleqä-yäłto

C-V. DECIMAL SYSTEMS (WITH A BASE OF 10) WITH WORDS FOR UNITS 1-9  AND TENS  10-100:

These are the decimal systems where, to learn the numbers, one necessarily has to memorize the numbers 1-10, and the tens numbers 20-100, and the regular procedure for forming the other in-between numbers.

Typical examples of these numbers are found in the major languages of the Uralo-Altaic family:

Mongolian (UraloAltaic-Altaic):

1-10: nigen, khoyar, gorban, dörben, tabun, jirgugan, dologan, naiman,yisun, arban,

Tens 20-100: khorin, gochin, döchin, tabin, jiran, dalan, nayan, yeren, jagon

Other numbers: tens+unit, e.g. 11 is arban nigen (10+1), etc.

Turkish (UraloAltaic-Altaic):

1-10: bir, iki, üҫ, dört, beş, altï, yedi, sekiz, dokuz, on

Tens 20-100: yirmi, otuz, kïrk, elli, altmïş, yetmiş, seksen, doksan, yüz

Other numbers: tens+unit, e.g. 11 is on bir (10+1), etc.

Manchu (UraloAltaic-Altaic):

1-10: emu, juwe, ilan, duin, sunja, ninggun, nadan, jakūn, uyun, juwan

Tens 20-100: orin, gusin, dehi, susai, ninju, nadanju, jakūnju, uyunju,tanggū

Other numbers: tens+unit, e.g. 11 is juwan emu (10+1), etc.

[The only special form is 15, tofohun].

Korean (UraloAltaic-KoreoJapanese):

1-10: hana, tul, set, net, tasәt, yәsәt, ilgop, yәdәlp, ahop, yәl

tens 20-100: sïmïl, sәlïn, mahïn, sühïn, yecun, ilhïn, yәdïn, ahïn, pɛk

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 11: yәl hana, 21: sïmïl hana,  99: ahïn ahop

[usually a –ïi is inserted after the final word. Thus 1: hanaïi,  20: sïmïlïi,  21:sïmïl hanaïi, etc.]

Japanese (UraloAltaic-KoreoJapanese):

1-10: hitotsu, futatsu, mittsu, yottsu, itsutsu, muttsu, nanatasu, yattsu,kokonotsu, tō

tens 20-100: hatachi, miso, yoso, iso, muso, nanaso, yaso, kokonoso,momo [Note: miso, yoso, etc. can alternately be misoji, yosoji, etc]

Other numbers: tens+amari+unit

Thus 11: tō amari hitotsu,  21: hatachi amari hitotsu,  99: kokonoso amarikokonotsu

[Modern Japanese, however, uses numbers basically borrowed from Chinese]

Hungarian (UraloAltaic-Uralic):

1-10: egy, kettő, három, négy, öt, hat, hét, nyolcz, kilencz, tíz

tens 20-100: húsz, harmincz, negyven, ötven, hatvan, hetven, nyolczvan,kilenczven, száz

Other numbers: tens+unit  [But here, in line with the –n endings, 10: tizen, 20:huszon]. Thus:

11: tizen-egy,  99: kilenczven-kilencz

Also, sometimes in some other languages in Asia and Africa:

Tengima Naga (SinoTibetan-Tibetic):

1-10: po, kenna, sê, dā, pangu, suru, thenā, thethā, tekwü, kerr

tens 20-100: kerr, mekwü, serr, lhidā, lhisuru, lhithenā, lhithethā, lhitekwü,krā

Other numbers: 11-13, etc. previous tens+o+1-3 [Here, 1 has the special formpokrō],

14-19, etc. following tens+pemo+7-9.

e.g. 11 is kerr o pokrō (10+o+1), 21 is mekwü o pokrō, (20+o+1), 99 is krāpemo tekwü (100+pemo+9)

Amharic/Ethiopian (SemitoHamitic-Semitic):

1-10: and, hulat, sost, arāt, am’st, sad’st, sabāt, sam’nt, zaṭañ, ašr

tens 20-100: hāyā, šalāsā, arbā, amsā, salsā, sabā , samānyā, zaṭanā, mato

Other numbers:  tens+unit, e.g. 11: ašrā and,  21: hāyā and,  99: zaṭanā zaṭañ

[The only special form is the first tens number in combining with units: ašrbecomes ašrā].

Swahili (NigerCongo):

1-9: mosi, pili, tatu, ‘nne, tano, sita, saba, nane, kenda

Tens 10-100: kumi, makumi-mawili, makumi-matatu, makumi-ma’nne,makumi-matano, makumi-sita, makumi-saba, makumi-manane, makumi-kenda, mia

(The word for 100 is borrowed from Arabic)

Other numbers:  tens+na+unit 1-9 [Here, 1 and 2 have special forms: moja,mbili], e.g. 11 is kumi na moja (10+na+1).

Languages of this category are found in the Amerindian superfamily of America as well. One example:

Sahaptin (Amerindian):

1-10: naxc, nipt, mәtad, pinipt, paxad, ptәxninc, tusxas, paxatumad,t’smәst, putәmd

tens 20-100: nibtid, mәtabtid, pinibtid, paxabtid, ptәxninseibtid,tusxaseibtid, paxatumadeibtid, tsmaseibtid, naxcputabdid

Other numbers: tens+unit or tens+wiya+unit. Thus:

11: putәmd wiya naxc,  21: nibtid wiya naxc,  99: tsmaseibtid wiya t’smәst

C-VI. DECIMAL SYSTEMS (WITH A BASE OF 10) WITH WORDS FOR NUMBERS  1-19 and  TENS  20-100:

These are the decimal systems where, to learn the numbers, one necessarily has to memorize the numbers 1-10 and the tens numbers 20-100 and the regular procedure for forming the other numbers in-between 21-99, but (due perhaps to the influence of some vigesimal number systems in the vicinity) also the separate numbers or the regular procedure for forming the numbers 11-19.

Many languages form the numbers differently for 11-19 than for the other later numbers 21-29, 31-39, etc., but by a regular procedure rather than with different words. Thus we have the following languages from the Uralo-Altaic family:

Finnish (Uralo-Altaic-Finno-Ugrian):

1-10: yksi, kaksi, kolme, neljä, viisi, kuusi, seitsemän, kahdeksan,yhdeksän, kymmenen

11-19: yksi-toista, etc.

tens 20-90: kaksi-kymmentä, etc.          100: sata

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 21: kaksi-kymmentä yksi,  99: yhdeksän-kymmentä yhdeksän

Estonian (Uralo-Altaic-Finno-Ugrian):

1-10: üks, kaks, kolm, neli, viis, kuus, seitse, kaheksa, üheksa, kümme

11-19: üks-teist, etc.

tens 20-100: kaks-kümmend, etc.          100: sada

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 21: kaks-kümmend üks, üheksa-kümmendüheksa

Some languages of the Austronesian family:

Malay (Austronesian):

1-10: satu, dua, tiga, empat, lima, enam, tujuh, lapan, sembilan, se-puluh

11-19: se-belas, dua-belas, etc.

tens 20-90: dua-puluh, etc.,          100: se-ratus

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus: 21: dua-puluh satu,  99: sembilan-pulusembilan

Tagalog (Austronesian):

1-10: isá, dalawá, tatló, apat, limá, anim, pitó, waló, siyam, sang-pouó

11-19: labing-isá, etc.

tens 20-100: dalawá-ngpouó, tatló-ngpouó, apat-napouó, limá-ngpouó,anim-napouó, pitó-ngpouó, waló-ngpouó, siyam-napouó [ie. –ngpouó after vowel, –napouó after consonant]

100: sangdáan

Other numbers: tens+‘t+unit. Thus 21: dalawá-ngpouó-‘t isá,  99: siyam-napouó-‘t siyam

Then we have the languages where the numbers 11-19 are formed with distinct words or by a process of fusion and inflection, but the later in-between numbers (21-29, 31-39, etc.) are formed in a very regular way.

Some languages of Africa:

Kanuri (NiloSaharan/Sudanic):

1-10: tilo, ndi, yasgә, degә, ugu, arasgә, tulur, wusgә, lәgar, megu

tens 20-90: pindi, piyasgә, pidegә, piugu, pirasgә, pitulur, pitusgu, pilәgar

11-19: lәgari, nduri, yasgәn, deri, uri, arasgәn, tulurri, wusgәn, lәgarri

Other numbers: tens+unit, or tens+tata+unit [units ending in vowels add a –n, and units ending in consonants add a –nyin in the compound words].

Thus: 21: pindi tata tilon,  99: pilәgar tata lәgarnyin

Some languages from the Amerindian language super-family of America:

Cherokee (Amerindian-):

1-10: sowo, tali, tsoi, nvgi, hisgi, sudali, galiquogi, tsunela, sonela, sgohi

11-19: sadu, talidu, tsogadu, nigadu, hisgadu, daladu, galiquadu, neladu,soneladu

tens 20-100: tali-sgohi, tsoi-gohi, nvg-sgohi, hisgi-sgohi, sudali-sgohi,galiqua-sgohi, tsunela-sgohi, sonela-sgohi, sgohitsiqua

Other numbers: tens (minus –hi)+unit. Thus 21: tali-sgo sowo,  99: sonela-sgosonela

Navaho (Amerindian):

1-10: dałai, nak’i, txā, dī, ashdla, hastxá, tsosts’ed, tsebi, naast’ai, naezná

11-19: ładzáda, nak’idzada, txádzáda, didzáda, ashdlaáda, xastxaáda,tsosts’edzáda, tsebidzáda, naas’aidzáda

tens 20-100: nadīn, txadīn, dísdīn, ashdládīn, hastą́dīn, tsosts’idīn,tseebídīn, náhást’édīn, naennádīn

Other numbers: tens+ła+unit. Thus 21: nadīn ła dałai,  99: náhást’édīn ła naezná

Some of the Semitic languages (which also have dual forms in 1-19 because of grammatical gender):

Arabic (SemitoHamitic-Semitic):

1-10 masc.: wāḥidun, isnāni, salasatun, ‘arba’atun, khamsatun, sittatun,sab’atun, samāniyatun, tis’atun, ‘asharatun

1-10 fem.: wāḥidatun, isnatāni, salasun, ‘arba’un, khamsun, sittun, sab’un,samānin, tis’un, ‘ashrun

11-12 masc.: ‘aḥada-‘ashar, isnā-‘ashar.    11-12 fem.: ‘iḥdai-‘ashrat, isnatā-‘ashrat

13-19 masc.: salasata-‘ashar, etc. (-tun becomes -ta).

13-19 fem.: salasa-‘ashar, etc. (-un becomes -a).  [Note: 18 is samāniya–‘ashar]

Tens 20-100: i’shrūna, salasūna, ‘arba’ūna, khamsūna, sittūna, sab’ūna,samānūna, tis’ūna

Other numbers 21-99: unit (m/f) followed by (the word) wa and the tens. Thus:

21( masc.): wāḥidun-wa-i’shrūna, 99 (masc.): tis’atun-wa-tis’ūna.

Hebrew (SemitoHamitic-Semitic):

1-10 masc.: ɛḥɔd, shnayim, shloshɔh,  arbɔ’ɔh, ḥ^amishɔh, shishɔh, shiv’ɔh,shmōnɔh, tish’ɔh, ‘ɛsɔrɔh

1-10 fem.: aḥad, shtayim, shlosh,  arba, ḥɔmesh, shesh, shɛva’, shmōnɛh,tesha’, ‘ɛsɛr

11-12 masc.: ‘aḥad-‘ɔsɔr, shnem-‘ɔsɔr.    11-12 fem.: ‘aḥad-‘ɛsreh, shtem-‘ɛsreh.

13-19 masc: shloshɔh-‘ɔsɔr, etc. (3+‘ɔsɔr).    13-19 fem.: shlosh–‘ɛsreh, etc. (3+‘ɛsreh).

Tens 20-100: ‘ɛsrīm, shloshīm, arbɔ’īm, ḥ^amishīm, shishīm, shiv’īm,shmōnīm, tish’īm, meɔh

Other numbers 21-99: unit (m/f) followed by (the word) w and the tens. Thus:

21( masc.): ɛḥɔd-w-‘ɛsrīm, 99 (masc.): tish’ɔh-w-tish’īm

Maltese (SemitoHamitic-Semitic):

1-10: wieħed, tnejn, tlieta, erbgħa, ħamsa, sitta, sebgħa, tmienja, disgħa,għaxra

11-19: ħdax, tnax, tlettax, erbatax, ħmistax, sittax, sbattax, tmintax, dsatax

tens 20-100: għoxrin, tletin, erbgħin, ħamsin, sittin, sebgħin, tmenin,disgħin

Other numbers: unit+u+tens. Thus 21: wieħed u għoxrin,  99: disgħa udisgħin

But the Dravidian family of languages of India as a whole falls in this category, with clear fusion or inflection in 11-19.

Tamil (Dravidian):

1-10: onṛu, iraṇḍu, mūnṛu, nāngu, aindu, āṛu, ēlu, eṭṭu, onbadu, pattu

11-19: padinonṛu, panniraṇḍu, padimūnṛu, padināngu, padinaindu,padināṛu, padinēlu, padineṭṭu, pattonbadu

tens 20-100: irubadu, muppadu, nāṛbadu, aimbadu, aṛubadu, elubadu,eṇbadu, toṇṇūṛu, nūṛu

Other numbers: tens+unit [The final –du and –ṛu of the tens become –tt and –ṭṛ before vowels and –ttu and –ṭṛu before consonants]. Thus:

21: irubatt-onṛu,  23: irubattu-mūnṛu,  93: toṇṇūṭṛu-mūnṛu,   99: toṇṇūṭṛ-onbadu

[In Dravidian languages, initial e, ē, o, ō are pronounced ye, yē, wo, wō. In Tamil, a final u is pronounce ï]

Malayalam (Dravidian):

1-10: onn, raṇṭ, mūnn, nāl, añc, āṛ, ēl, eṭṭ, onpat, patt

11-19: patinonn, panṛaṇṭ, patimmūnn, patināl, patinañc, patināṛ, patinēl,patineṭṭ, pattonpat

tens 20-100: irupat, muppat, nālpat, anpat, aṛupat, elupat, eṇpat, toṇṇūṛ,nūṛ

Other numbers: tens+unit [The final –at  of the tens becomes –att before vowels and –atti before consonants. The final ūṛ of 90 becomes ūṭṛi alternately pronounced ūṭi, before the units]. Thus 21: irupatt-onn,  23: irupatti-mūnn, 99:toṇṇūṭṛi-onpat

Kannada (Dravidian):

1-10: ondu, erḍu, mūru, nalku, aidu, āru, ēḷu, eṇṭu, ombattu, hattu

11-19: hannondu, hannerḍu, hadimūru, hadinālku, hadinaidu, hadināru,hadinēḷu, hadineṇṭu, hattombattu

tens 20-100: ippattu, mūvattu, nālvattu, aivattu, ārvattu, eppattu, embattu,tombattu, nūru

Other numbers: tens+unit. [The final –ttu of the tens become –tt before vowels].

Thus 21: ippatt-ondu,  99: tombatt-ombattu

Telugu (Dravidian):

1-10: okaṭi, reṇḍu, mūḍu, nālugu, ayidu, āru, ēḍu, enimidi, tommidi, padi

11-19: padakoṇḍu, panneṇḍu, padamūḍu, padanālugu, padihēni, padahāru,padihēḍu, paddenimidi, pandommidi

tens 20-100: iruvai, muppai, nalubhai, yābhai, aravai, ḍebbhai, enabhai,tombhai, vandala

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 21: iruvai okaṭi,  99: tombhai tommidi

And so do the languages from all the other branches of Indo-Europeanlanguages outside India:

Persian (IndoEuropean-Iranian):

1-10: yak, dū, si, cahār, pañj, shish, haft, hasht, nuh, dah

11-19: yāzdah, davāzdah, sīzdah, chahārdah, pānzdah, shānzdah, hīvdah,hījdah, nūzdah

tens 20-100: bīst, sī, chihil, pañjāh, shast, haftād, hashtād, navad, sad

Other numbers: tens+u+unit. Thus 21: bīst u yak,  99: navad u nuh

Armenian (IndoEuropean-ThracoPhrygian):

1-10: mēk, erkou, erekh, chors, hing, veçh, eòthә, outhә, inә, tas

11-19: tasnmēk, tasnerkou, tasnerekh, tasnchors, tasnhing, tasnveçh,tasneòthә, tasnouthә, tasninә

tens 20-100: khsan, eresoun, kharrasoun, yisoun, vathsoun, eòthanasoun,outhsoun, innsoun, hariur

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus: 21: khsan mēk,  99: innsoun inә

Ancient Greek (IndoEuropean-Hellenic):

1-10: heîs/mía/hen (m/f/n), dúo, treîs, téssares, pénte, héks, heptá, oktṓ,ennéa, déka

11-19: héndeka, dṓdeka, treîs-kaì-déka, téssares-kaì-déka, pentekaídeka,hekkaídeka, heptakaídeka, oktokaídeka, enneakaídeka

tens 20-100: eíkosi, triákonta, tessarákonta, pentḗkonta, heksḗkonta,hebdomḗkonta, ogdoḗkonta, enenḗkonta, hekatón

Other numbers: tens+kaì+unit or unit+kaì+tens. Either form can be used. Thus:

21: eíkosi kaì heîs or heîs kaì eíkosi,   99: enenḗkonta kaì ennéa, or ennéakaì enenḗkonta

[Note: Greek vowels have a tonal accent, which is marked. A special form for neuter 4: téssara]

Modern Greek (IndoEuropean-Hellenic):

1-10: henas, duo, treis, tessereis, pente, eksi, hephta, okhtō, ennia, deka

11-12: hendeka, dōdeka, 13-19: deka-treis, etc.

tens 20-100: eikosi, trianta, saranta, penēnta, heksēnta, hebdomēnta,ogdonta, enenēnta, hekato

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus: 21: eikosi-henas,  99: enenēnta-ennia

[Modern Greek has no tonal accent, hence accent not marked here].

Albanian (IndoEuropean-Illyrian):

1-10: një, dy, tre, katër, pesë, gjashtë, shtatë, tetë, nënd, dhjëte

1-18: një-mbë-dhjëte, etc.   19: nëntë-mbë-dhjëte

tens 20-100: njëzet, tridhjet, dyzet, pesë-dhjet, gjashtë-dhjet, shtatë-dhjet,tetë-dhjet, nënd-dhjet, një-qind

Other numbers: tens+e+unit. Thus 21: njëzet e një,  99: nënd-dhjet e nënd

[Note: 20 and 40 seem to be formed on a principle of 1×20, 2×20].

Polish (IndoEuropean-Slavic):

1-10: jeden, dwa, trzy, cztery, pięć, sześć, siedem, osiem, dziewięć,dziesięć

11-19: jeden-naście, dwa-naście, trzy-naście, czter-naście, pięt-naście,szes-naście, siedem-naście, osiem-naście, dziewięt-naście

tens 20-100: dwa-dzieścia, trzy-dzieści, cztery-dzieści, pięć-dzieśiąt, sześć-dzieśiąt, siedem-dzieśiąt, osiem-dzieśiąt, dziewięć-dzieśiąt, sto

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 21: dwa-dzieścia jeden,  99: dziewięć–dzieśiąt dziewięć

Russian  (IndoEuropean-Slavic):

1-10: odin, dva, tri, cyetyrye, pyat’, shyest’, syem’, vosyem’, dyevyat’,dyesyat’

11-19: odi-nadçat’, dvye-nadçat’, tri-nadçat’, cyetyr-nadçat’, pyat-nadçat’,shyest-nadçat’, syem-nadçat’, vosyem-nadçat’, dyevyatnadçat’

tens 20-100: dvadçat’, tridçat’, sorok, pyat’-dyesyat, shyest’-dyesyat, syem’-dyesyat, vosyem’-dyesyat, dyevyanosto, sto

Other numbers: tens+unit: Thus 21: dvadçat’ odin,  99: dyevyanosto dyevyat’

Lithuanian (IndoEuropean-Baltic):

1-10: vienas, du, trys, keturi, penki, šeši, septyni, aštuoni, devyni, dešimtis

11-19: vienuolika, dvylika, trylika,keturiolika, penkiolika, šešiolika,septyniolika, aštuoniolika, devyniolika

tens 20-100: dvidešimt, trisdešimt, keturiasdešimt, penkiasdešimt,šešiasdešimt, septyniasdešimt, aštuoniasdešimt, devyniasdešimt, šimtas

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 21: dvidešimt vienas,  99: devyniasdešimt devyni

Latvian (IndoEuropean-Baltic):

1-10: viens, divi, tris, četri, pieci, seši, septiņi, astoņi, deviņi, desmits

11-19: vienspadsmit, divspadsmit, trispadsmit, četrpadsmit, piecpadsmit,sešpadsmit, septiņpadsmit, astoņpadsmit, deviņpadsmit

tens 20-100: divdesmit, trisdesmit, četrdesmit, piecdesmit, sešdesmit,septiņdesmit, astoņdesmit, deviņdesmit, simts

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 21: divdesmit viens,  99: deviņdesmit deviņi

Danish (IndoEuropean-Germanic):

1-10: en/et, to, tre, fire, fem, seks, syv, otte, ni, ti

11-19: elleve, tolv, tretten, fjorten, femten, seksten, sytten, atten, nitten

tens 20-100: tyve, tredive, fyrre, halvtreds, tres, halvfjerds, firs, halvfems,hundrede

Other numbers: unit+og+tens. Thus: 21: en-og-tyve,  99: ni-og-halvfems.

Norwegian (IndoEuropean-Germanic):

1-10: en/et, to, tre, fire, fem, seks, sju, åtte, ni, ti

11-19: elleve, tolv, tretten, fjorten, femten, seksten, sytten, atten, nitten

tens 20-100: tjue, tretti, førti, femti, seksti, sytti, åtti, nitti, hundre

Other numbers: unit+og+tens. Thus: 21: en-og-tjue,  99: ni-og-nitti.

Swedish (Indo-European-Germanic):

1-10: en/ett, två, tre, fyra, fem, sex, sju, åtta, nio, tio

11-19: tio, elva, tolv, tretton, fjorton, femton, sexton, sjutton, aderton,nitton

tens 20-100: tjugo, trettio, fyrtio, femtio, sextio, sjuttio, åttio, nittio, hundra

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus 21: tjugo-en,  99: nittio-nio

Icelandic  (IndoEuropean-Germanic):

1-10: einn, tveir, ƥrīr, fjórir, fimm, sex, sjö, átta, níu, tíu

11-19: ellefu, tólf, ƥrettán, fjórtán, fimmtán, sextán, seytján, átján, nítjan

tens 20-100: tuttugu, ƥrjátíu, fjörutíu, fimmtíu, sextíu, sjötíu, áttatíu, níutíu,hundrađ

Other numbers: tens+og+unit. Thus 21: tuttugu og einn,  99: níutíu og níu

German (IndoEuropean-Germanic):

1-10: eins, zwei, drei, vier, fünf, sechs, sieben, acht, neun, zehn

11-19: elf, zwölf, dreizehn, vierzehn, fünfzehn, sechzehn, siebzehn,achtzehn, neunzehn

tens 20-100: zwanzig, dreissig, vierzig, fünfzig, sechzig, siebzig, achtzig,neunzig, hundert

Other numbers: unit+und+tens (as one word, but eins becomes ein). Thus:

21: einundzwanzig,  99: neunundneunzig

Dutch (IndoEuropean-Germanic):

1-10: een, twee, drie, vier, vijf, zes, zeven, acht, negen, tien

11-19: elf, twaalf, dertien, veertien, vijftien, zestien, zeventien, achttien,negentien

tens 20-100: twintig, dertig, veertig, vijftig, zestig, zeventig, tachtig,negentig, honderd

Other numbers: unit+en+tens. Thus 21: een en twintig,  99: negen ennegentig

Old English (IndoEuropean-Germanic):

1-10: ān, twēgen, ƥrīe, fēower, fīf, siex, seofon, eahta, nigon, tīen

11-19: endleofan, twelf, ƥrēotīene, fēowertīene, fīftīene, siextīene,seofontīene, eahtatīene, nigontīene

tens 20-100: twentig, ƥrītig, fēowertig, fīftig, siextig, hundseofontig,hundeahtatig, hundnigontig, hundtēontig

Other numbers: unit+and+tens. Thus 21: ān and twentig,  99: nigon andhundnigontig

[ƥ  is pronounced “th”]

English (IndoEuropean-Germanic):

1-10: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten

11-19: eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen,eighteen, nineteen

tens 20-100: twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety,hundred

Other numbers: tens+unit. Thus: 21: twenty-one,  99: ninety-nine

Latin (IndoEuropean-Italic):

1-10: unus, duo, tres, quattuor, quinque, sex, septem, octo, novem, decem

11-19: undecim, duodecim, tredecim, quattuordecim, quindecim, sedecim,septemdecim, duode-viginti, unde-viginti

tens 20-100: viginti, triginta, quadraginta, quinquaginta, sexaginta,septuaginta, octoginta, ninaginta, centum

Other numbers: tens+unit (1-7) or unit (1-7)+et+tens. Either form can be used.

Tens (including 100)+unit (8-9): duode/unde+following-tens (i.e. 2-less-then, 1-less-then the following tens). Thus:

21: viginti-unus or unus et viginti,  99: undecentum

Spanish (IndoEuropean-Italic):

1-10: uno/una, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, séis, siete, ocho, nueve, diez

11-19: once, doce, trece, catorce, quince, dieciséis, diecisiete, dieciocho,diecinueve

tens 20-100: veinte, treinta, cuarenta, cincuenta, sesenta, setenta, ochenta,noventa, ciento

Other numbers: 21-29: vienti–uno, etc. Others: tens+y+unit. Thus:

31: treinta y uno,  99: noventa y nueve

Portuguese (IndoEuropean-Italic):

1-10: um/uma, dois, três, quatro, cinco, seis, sete, oito, nove, dez

11-19: onze, doze, treze, catorze, quinze, dezasseis, dezassete, dezoito,dezanove

tens 20-100: vinte, trinta, quarenta, sessenta, setenta, oitenta, noventa,cento

Other numbers: tens+e+unit. Thus 21: vinte e um,  99: noventa e nove

Romanian (IndoEuropean-Italic):

1-10: unu, doi, trei, patru, cinci, şase, şapte, opt, nouă, zece

11-19: unsprezece, doisprezece, treisprezece, paisprezece, cincisprezece,şaisprezece, şaptesprezece, optsprezece, nouăsprezece

tens 20-100: douăzeci, treizeci, paizeci, cincizeci, şaizeci, şaptezeci,optzeci, nouăzeci, o sută

Other numbers: tens+şi+unit. Thus 21: douăzeci şi unu,  99: nouăzeci şi nouă

Italian (IndoEuropean-Italic):

1-10: uno, due, tré, quattro, cinque, sei, sette, otto, nove, dieci

11-19: undici, dodici, tredici, quattordici, quindici, sedici, diciassette,diciotto, diciannove

tens 20-100: venti, trenta, quaranta, cinquanta, sessanta, settanta, ottanta,novanta, cento

Other numbers: tens+unit [last vowel of tens dropped before vowels in uno,otto]. Thus:

21: vent-uno,  99: novanta-nove

C-VII. DECIMAL SYSTEMS (WITH A BASE OF 10) WITH WORDS FOR NUMBERS  1-100:

Finally, we come to the most complex decimal system of all, where there is such complete fusion and inflection between the tens and unit numbers that it becomes necessary to learn individually the exact form of every number from 1-100, above the usual necessity of learning the unit words 1-9 and tens words 10-100.

Basically, one has to first learn the numbers from 1-10, 11-19 and the tens 20-100. The other numbers 21-99 are naturally formed by a combination of the tens and unit words.

But these words are fused together in such a way that it becomes necessary to individually learn every number from 1-100. [In addition, the words 19, 29, 39, etc. are formed on the principle “one less than the following tens” (usually except 89 and 99)].

The only languages in the world which have a number system of this kind are the Indo-Aryan languages of North India. We will take the example of just three of these languages: Hindi, Marathi and Gujarati. Compare the difference in the forms in both the languages:

Hindi:

1-9: ek, do, tīn, cār, pāñc, chah, sāt, āṭh, nau

11-19: gyārah, bārah, terah, caudah, pandrah, solah, satārah, aṭhārah,unnīs

tens 10-100: das, bīs, tīs, cālīs, pacās, sāṭh, sattar, assī, nabbe, sau

The other numbers are formed by unit-form+tens-form, e.g. 21: ek+bīs = ikk-īs.

The different changes taking place in the tens forms as well as the units form in the numbers 21-99 must be noted:

Tens forms:

20 bīs:  –īs (21,22,23,25,27,28), –bīs (24,26).

30 tīs:  –tīs (29,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38).

40 cālīs:  –tālīs (39,41,43,45,47,48), –yālīs (42, 46), –vālīs (44).

50 pacās:  –cās (49), –van (51,52,54,57,58), –pan (53,55,56).

60 sāṭh:  –saṭh (59,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68).

70 sattar:  –hattar (69,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78).

80 assī:  –āsī (79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89).

90 nabbe:  –nave (91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99).

Unit forms:

1 ek:  ikk- (21), ikat- (31), ik- (41,61,71), iky- (81), ikyā- (51,91).

2 do:  bā- (22,52,62,92), bat- (32), ba- (42,72), bay- (82).

3 tīn: te- (23), ten- (33,43), tir- (53,63,83), ti- (73), tirā- (93).

4 cār:  cau- (24,54,74), ca- (44), caun- (34,64), caur- (84), caurā- (94).

5 pāñc:  pacc- (25), paĩ– (35,45,65), pac- (55,75,85), pañcā- (95).

6 che:  chab- (26), chat- (36), chi- (46,76), chap- (56), chiyā- (66,96), chiy-(86).

7 sāt:  sattā- (27,57,97), saĩ– (37,47), saḍ- (67), sat- (77), satt- (87).

8 āṭh:  aṭṭhā- (28,58,98), aḍ- (38,48,68), aṭh- (78,88).

9 nau:  un- (29,39,59,69,79), unan- (49), nav- (89), ninyā- (99).

Marathi:

1-9: ek, don, tīn, cār, pāç, sahā, sāt, āṭh, naū

11-19: akrā, bārā, terā, çaudā, pandhrā, soḷā, satrā, aṭhrā, ekoṇīs

tens 10-100: dahā, vīs, tīs, cāḷīs, pannās, sāṭh, sattar, aĩśī, navvad, śambhar

The other numbers are formed by unit-form+tens-form, e.g. 21: ek+vīs = ek-vīs.

The different changes taking place in the tens forms as well as the units form in the numbers 21-99 must be noted:

Tens forms:

20 vīs:  –vīs (21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28).

30 tīs:  –tīs (29,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38).

40 cāḷīs:  –cāḷīs (39,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48).

50 pannās:  –pannās (49), –vanna (51,52,55,57,58), –panna (53,54,56).

60 sāṭh:  – sāṭh (59), –saṣṭa (61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68).

70 sattar:  –sattar (69), –hattar (71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78).

80 aĩśī:  –aĩśī (79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88).

90 navvad:  –navvad (89), –ṇṇav (91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99).

Unit forms:

1 ek:  ek- (21,31,61), ekke- (41), ekkyā- (81,91), ekkā- (51,71).

2 don:  bā- (22,52,62,72), bat- (32), be- (42), byā- (82,92).

3 tīn: te- (23), teha- (33), tre- (43,53,63), tryā- (73,83,93).

4 cār:  co- (24), çau- (34,54,64), çavve- (44), çauryā- (74,84,94).

5 pāç:  pañc- (25), pas- (35), pañce- (45), pañçā- (55), pā- (65), pañcyā(75,85,95) .

6 sahā:  sav- (26), chat- (36), sehe- (46), chap- (56), sahā- (66), śahā-(76,86,96).

7 sāt:  sattā- (27,57), sada- (37), satte- (47), sadu- (67), sattyā- (77,87,97).

8 āṭh:  aṭṭhā- (28,58), aḍ- (38), aṭṭhe- (48), aḍu- (68), aṭṭhyā- (78,88,98).

9 naū:  ekoṇ- (29,39,49,59,69,79,89), navvyā- (99).

Gujarati:

1-9: ek, be, traṇ, cār, pāñc, cha, sāt, āṭh, nav

11-19: agyār, bār, ter, caud, pandar, soḷ, sattar, aḍhār, ogṇis

tens 10-100: das, vīs, trīs, cālīs, pacās, sāīṭh, sitter, ẽsī, nevũ, so

The other numbers are formed by unit-form+tens-form, e.g. 21: ek+vīs = ek-vīs.

The different changes taking place in the tens forms as well as the units form in the numbers 21-99 must be noted:

Tens forms:

20 vīs:  –īs (25), –vīs (21,22,23,24,26,27,28).

30 trīs:  –trīs (29,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38).

40 cālīs:  –tālīs (41,42,43,45,46,47,48), –cālīs (39), –ālīs (44).

50 pacās:  –pacās (49), –van (51,52,55,57,58), –pan (53,54,56).

60 sāīṭh:  –sāṭh (59), saṭh (61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68).

70 sitter: sitter (69),  –oter (71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78).

80 ẽsī: ẽsī (79),  –āsī (81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89).

90 nevũ: –ṇu (91,92,93,94,95,97,98,99), –nnu (96).

Unit forms:

1 ek:  ek- (21,41,61,71), eka- (31), ekā- (51,91), eky- (81).

2 be:  bā- (22,52,62,92), ba- (32), be- (42), b- (72), by– (82).

3 traṇ: te- (23,33), tre- (43,53,63), ty- (83), t- (73), trā- (93).

4 cār:  co- (24,34,54,64), cum- (44,74), cory- (84), corā- (94).

5 pāñc:  pacc- (25), pāã– (35,65), pis– (45), pañc- (75,85), pañcā- (55,95).

6 cha:  cha- (26,36.96), che- (46), chap- (56), chā- (66), chay- (86), ch– (76).

7 sāt:  sattā- (27,57,97), saḍa- (37), suḍ– (47), saḍ- (67), sity- (77,87).

8 āṭh:  aṭṭhā- (28,58,98), aḍ- (48,68), aḍa– (38), iṭhy- (78,88).

9 nav:  ogaṇ- (29,39,49,59), agṇo- (69), ogṇā- (79), nevy- (89), navvā– (99).

The same irregularity or inflectional complexity can be seen in the formation of the numbers between 21 and 99 in all the Indo-Aryan languages of North India (right up to Kashmiri in the extreme north, and going so far westwards as to influence the Pashto language in the northwest which, although it belongs to the Iranian branch, has also been influenced by the Indo-Aryan cerebral sounds), but is found nowhere else outside the sphere of North India . Note that the irregularity of the fusion of the forms in one Indo-Aryan language do not correspond to those in another Indo-Aryan language. Thus, ek (1) has one form (ek-) in Marathi in 21, 31 and 61, but Hindi has three different forms ikk- (in 21),ikat- (in 31) and ik- (in 61), and Gujarati has two forms ek– (in 21,61) and eka– (in 31). Or pāñc (5) has one form (paĩ–)  in Hindi in 35, 45 and 65, and Gujarati has two forms pāã– (in 35,65) and pis– (in 45), but Marathi pāç (5) has three different forms pas- (in 35), pañce- (in 45) and pā- (in 65).

We have shown the numbers 21-99 in these three Indo-Aryan languages in classified table form, but obviously it is simpler to learn each individual number by rote than with the help of these classification tables.

This is in sharp contrast with all the other languages in the world other than the Indo-Aryan languages of North India. In all the other languages, it is necessary to learn by heart at the most the numbers from 1-10, or from 1-19, and the tens forms (20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90). All the numbers between 21 and 99 are formed from these numbers by some sort of regular process which does not require all these individual numbers to be learnt by heart. This is the case with all other languages, including all the other non-Indo-European Indian languages (Dravidian, Austric, Sino-Tibetan, Burushaski. The Andamanese languages, as already pointed out, do not have numbers beyond 3 or 5) as well as all the non-Indian Indo-European languages (spoken outside India), including even the Indo-Aryan Sinhalese language spoken to the south of India.

This feature of the Indo-Aryan numbers has very definite practical disadvantages:

1. The first and most obvious disadvantage is that it makes it more difficult for the learner to learn the exact forms of the numbers 1-100 in an Indo-Aryan language than in any other language, even if the learner is himself a speaker of another Indo-Aryan language (though in that case, of course, he is likely to recognize the numbers when spoken by someone else more easily than the learner who is a speaker of a non-Indo-Aryan language).

2. The second disadvantage is that,like all the other many languages (including, for example, Old English and German) which have a similar word-order for the numbers 21-99, the word-order of the tens and unit words is irrational and unordered since the unit word comes before the tens word. Thus, the number 45,396 (four, five, three, nine, six) in English, for example, would be “forty-five thousand, three hundred and ninety-six” (in the order four, five, three, nine,six), which is rational and ordered, but in Hindi would be “pain–tālīs hazār tīn-sau chiyā-nave” ( in the order five, four, three, six, nine).

This is somewhat like the irrational and unordered American style of writing the date as compared to the British style: 4th January 2018 is written 1/4/2018 in the American style and 4/1/2018 in the British style. Logically, the month should come between the day and the year, and the only reason the irrational and unordered American style is gaining ground in modern usage is because of the political and economic clout of the U.S.A and its monopoly over computer technology.

The unordered nature of the Indo-Aryan numbers 21-99, compounded with the irregular and inflected forms, adds to the difficulty of the numbers. On a personal note, I myself regularly fumble for the right words (although I know them well) when suddenly called upon to say, for example, 67, when I automatically say sain–saṭh (or even chiya-…) instead of saḍ–saṭh, and then pause and correct myself.

But the nature of the Indo-Aryan numbers is very important from the cultural and historical view-point. As the Muslim saying goes, “mulla ki dor masjid tak“: I find in the nature of the Indo-Aryan number system one more clear piece of evidence for the OIT (the Out-of-India Theory of Indo-European origins).

C-VIII. HISTORICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE INDO-ARYAN NUMBER SYSTEM:

The number systems as found in the different languages in India show a great range and variety. We do not find the most uncommon types like the sexagesimal (based on 60, found in the Masai language in Africa), and the quindecimal (based on 15, found in the Huli language of Papua), but within the more common systems, the vigesimal (based on 20), and decimal (based on 10), we have every possible variety: see the difference above between the number systems in the closely related Santali and Turi languages where, after the initial four numbers 1-4, there is nothing in common, and Santali has a purely decimal system while Turi has a purely vigesimal system with a subset of five.

The interesting thing is that an analysis of the development of number systems in the world presents us with an interesting point about the origin and spread of the Indo-European languages from their original homeland, pointing towards the geographical location of that homeland. For the purpose of the discussion to follow, which is about the development of the Indo-European number system, we will leave out the language families of the New World and some isolated language families in the Old World (i.e. the Australian, Papuan, Amerindian, and also Andamanese, as well as the interior families of Africa: Khoisan,Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan, and also Eskimo-Aleut, which straddles the northernmost parts of both the Old and New Worlds, from Greenland to Alaska and the easternmost tips of Siberia), since they are not relevant to this question.

It will be seen that the decimal system dominates in the most widely spoken and distributed language families in the Old World (Indo-European, Semito-Hamitic, Sino-Tibetan, Uralo-Altaic, Austronesian, Dravidian), and the vigesimal system is found in the more isolated families (in the three language-isolate families, Basque, Burushaski and Ainu, and in Caucasian).

It is also likely that the vigesimal system was the original system in the Austric family: we have the system in Turi (in its earliest form, with a clear subset of 5), and in Savara and Nicobarese and perhaps originally in Khmer as well (among the languages examined by us here). The Vietnamese language was clearly influenced by its Sino-Tibetan family neighbours in developing a decimal system: note that it also has a tonal-system and monosyllabled words like most of its major Sino-Tibetan neighbour languages. Santali was also probably influenced by its Indo-Aryan and Dravidian neighbours, and Khasi by its Sino-Tibetan and Indo-Aryan neighbours, in developing a decimal system. It may be noted that Turi (mead, pea, punia), Santali (mit’, pɛ, pon),  Khmer (muәy,bәy, buәn) and Vietnamese (mot_ , ba, bôn) have a close correspondence in the numbers for 1,2 and 4, but not beyond that, and Turi has basic unit number words only upto 4 (all of which could be pointing to an original subset of 5). A reverse influence is seen in the originally Austric-speaking areas of eastern India, where neighboring Sino-Tibetan languages like Sikkimese and Garo have developed vigesimal systems. We also saw how the (Indo-European) Celtic languages like  Welsh and Irish developed vigesimal systems in what probably was originally the ancient area of the Basque family (although Irish also retained parallel decimal word-names for the tens), while French was influenced enough to develop words like quatre-vingts for 80 and soixante-onze etc. for 71 etc.

The point here is that the Indo-European languages must certainly have developed the feature of forming the numbers 11-19 in a different way from the other sets of numbers (21-29, 31-39, 41-49, etc.) due to the influence of neighboring languages with vigesimal systems: we will call this the vigesimal-effect. This could be a clue to the location of the Original IE Homeland in India, since the eastern half of India is riddled with languages having vigesimal systems (from Sikkimese in the north through Savara and Turi in the central parts to Nicobarese in the eastern islands), and we also have Burushaski in the north-northwest – but then of course we also have the Caucasian languages in the area of the Caucasus mountains and Basque in western Europe, which (with possibly related now-extinct languages spread out in the intervening areas) could likewise have influenced proto-IE in other suggested Homeland-theories.

But the Indo-European number system nevertheless does point towards an Indian Homeland and Out-of-India theory. This can be examined from two angles:

1. The stage-wise development of Indo-European numerals.
2. The spread of the vigesimal-affected decimal number-system.

1. The Stage-wise Development of Indo-European numerals:

The first stage of the Indo-European number system is represented by the Sanskrit numbers, which are as follows:

1-9: eka, dvi, tri, catur, pañca, ṣaṭ, sapta, aṣṭa, nava

tens 10-90: daśa, viṁśati, triṁśat, catvāriṁśat, pañcāśat, ṣaṣṭi, saptati,aśīti, navati, śatam

Other numbers: unit-form+tens.

[The tens do not undergo any change in combination, with the sole exception of the word for 16, where –daśa becomes –ḍaśa in combination with ṣaḍ-.  And, by the regular Sanskrit phonetic rules of sandhi or word-combination, in the unit-form+tens combinations for 80-, a-+-a becomes ā, and i-+-a becomes ya, so 81:ekāśīti, 82: dvyaśīti, etc].

Units forms:

1 eka:  ekā- (11), eka- (21,31,41,51,61,71,81,91).

2 dvi:  dvā- (11,22,32), dvi- (42,52,62,72,82,92).

3 tri:  trayo- (13,23,33), tri- (43,53,63,73,83,93).

4 catur:  catur- (14,24,84,94), catus- (34), catuś- (44) catuḥ- (54,64,74).

5 pañca:  pañca- (15,25,35,45,55,65,75,85,95).

6 ṣaṭ:  ṣo- (16), ṣaḍ- (26,86), ṣaṭ- (36,46,56,66,76), ṣaṇ- (96).

7 sapta:  sapta- (17,27,37,47,57,67,77,87,97).

8 aṣṭa:  aṣṭā- (18,28,38,48,58,68,78,88,98).

9 nava:  ūna- (19,29,39,49,59,69,79,89), nava– (99).

Compared to the modern Indo-Aryan forms:

a) The Sanskrit numbers with –5, –7, –8 and even –9 are remarkably regular (compare with the forms already shown in Hindi, Marathi and Gujarati, for example).

b) The variety of forms for –4 and –6 are fully explained (except perhaps the ṣo-in 16) by the regular phonetic rules of Sanskrit sandhi: r- becomes  ḥ- before -p(54), -ṣ (64) and -s (74), s- before -t (34), and ś- before -c (44). Likewise, ṭ-becomes ḍ- before voiced consonants and  vowels (26,86) and -ṇ before nasal consonants (96). These are all variations based only on the general phonetic rules of sandhi in Sanskrit (which apply to all Sanskrit words).

c) So we are left with with afew(far fewer as compared to the modern Indo-Aryan languages) variable forms for –1, –2 and –3 (apart from the irregular form for 16 already mentioned), and hardly any fusion and irregular inflection beyond the rules of regular sandhi.

Certain noteworthy features of the Sanskrit numbers, which have lingered on in modern Indo-Aryan, are:

1. The units come before the tens in all the numbers: this feature continues in the modern Indo-Aryan languages, and in some of the Indo-European languages outside India (Pashto under the influence of neighboring Indo-Aryan, and the Germanic branch languages German-Dutch-OldEnglish-Norwegian-Danish), but is reversed in all the other modern languages (including the Germanic branch languages English-Swedish-Icelandic) in the numbers after 20. In Ancient Greek and Latin, both ways were allowed after 20.
2. A minus principle (ūna-“less-than” or alternatelyekona- “one-less-than”)  is used for the -9 numbers: 19: ūna-viṁśati (or  ekona-viṁśati) etc., except for99: nava-navati. This feature continues in the modern Indo-Aryan languages and in Latin, which takes the step further (note the Latin tendency to innovate with a minus-principle, as when adopting the Attic Greek numeral system) by having duode-viginti and unde-viginti (18 and 19) etc., and even duode-centum and unde-centum (98 and 99).

[Note: Dravidian has this etymology for the number 9: e.g. Tamil on-badu (“one-less than-ten”). Here the prefix on- represents the Tamil word onṛu “one”, but also resembles the Sanskrit ūna “less” and Latin unus “one”!].

But, about two other main significant features:

1. While all the branches of Indo-European languages show the vigesimal-effect, where 1-19 are formed differently from subsequent sets like 21-29, etc. (not counting the Celtic branch with its vigesimal system borrowed from Basque), the sole exception is Sanskrit.

In Sanskrit, 11, 12, etc. (ekā-daśan, dvā-daśan, etc.) are exactly similar formations to 21, 22, etc. (eka-viṁśati, dvā-viṁśati, etc.), although grammatically the Sanskrit numbers 1-19 are supposed to be adjectives, while the numbers above that are supposed to be nouns. The Sanskrit numbers, therefore, clearly represent a frozen form of the earliest Indo-European purely decimal number-system before the vigesimal-effect took place.

2. Although Sanskrit is a very highly inflectional language, and the modern Indo-Aryan languages by and large have a very-much-diluted inflectional nature, the case is the opposite in the case of the numbers, where all the modern Indo-Aryan languages have a strong degree of inflection as compared to Sanskrit in the numbers 21-99. All this shows a state of affairs which leads to the second stage [Note: The numbers from 1-4 are highly inflected in themselves in Sanskrit and have many forms, e.g. 2: dva-, dvau-, dvi-, dve-, etc. and 3: tri-, trayaḥ-, trīṇi, etc. But that is not relevant to the discussion on hand]:

The second stage of development of the Indo-European number system is represented by all the Indo-European languages outside North India, where we see the vigesimal-effect in full force. In addition, the original order of the forms is unit+tens, and there is inflection in the formation of the numbers 11-19:

1. Thevigesimal-effect, with the numbers11-19 formed differently from subsequent sets like 21-29, etc., is found in all the branches of Indo-Europeanlanguages outside India.
2. The unit+tens order for the numbers 11-19 is retained in the Iranian,Albanian, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic and Italic branches, and partially in the Greek branch (fully in Ancient Greek, and partially, only for 11-12, in Modern Greek), although, among these, most of them reverse the order in the numbers after 20.
3. The distinct inflection in the numbers 1-19 (but, whether having a unit+tens order or a tens+unit order thereafter, not found in the numbers beyond 20) is found in the Iranian, Italic, Germanic and Greek (in Ancient Greek, and for 11-12 in Modern Greek, as pointed out above) branches.

Strangely, “all the Indo-European languages outside North India” includes even the Indo-Aryan Sinhalese language to the south of India which shares these features:

Sinhalese (IndoEuropean-IndoAryan):

1-9: eka, deka, tuna, hatara, pasa, haya, hata, aṭa, navaya, dahaya

1-9 unit stems: ek-, de-, tun-, hatara-, pas-, ha-, hat-, aṭa-, nava–

11-19: ekoḷaha, doḷaha, teḷaha, tudaha, pahaḷoha, soḷaha, hataḷoha, aṭaḷoha,ekun-vissa

tens 10-100: dahaya, vissa, tisa, hatalisa, panasa, hɛṭa, hɛttɛɛva, asūva,anūva, siyaya

Other numbers: unit-stem+tens. Thus the word-order for all the numbers is unit+tens.

[And, like Sanskrit and Latin (and the other modern Indo-Aryan languages which retain this feature), the number -9 is expressed by a minus-principle, where ekun– is used with the following tens-form (except, as in Sanskrit and most other modern Indo-Aryan languages, for 99)].

Thus: 21: ek-vissa,  89: ekun-anūva. Only 99 is nava-anūva. There is no minus-principle].

[Modern colloquial Sinhalese has simplified the system, or can it be that colloquial Sinhalese in fact represents an archaic remnant of the first stage, where there was a purely decimal system without the vigesimal-effect?
In colloquial speech the word-order for all the numbers is tens+unit. Even the numbers 11-19 are similarly formed in the form of tens-stem+unit, as daha-eka,daha-deka, etc.

The tens 10-100 stems: daha-, visi-, tis-, hatalis-, panas-, hɛṭa-, hɛttɛɛ-, asū-,anū-, siya–

Thus  21: visi-eka,  99: anū-navaya, etc.]

Thus, Sinhalese texts provide us with evidence missing in North India itself.Sinhalese is doubtless a treasure-house of clues to the most archaic stages ofIndo-European, often giving us clues to even older stages than Sanskrit (e.g. the word watura for “water”, as in Germanic English water and Hittite watar). These clues are not recognized because of the blinkers of the AIT, which treats all “Indo-Aryan” languages (i.e. Indo-European languages native to India) as belonging to one branch which entered India in its earliest form as the Vedic Sanskrit language. Orthodox opponents of the AIT, who also want to accord primacy to the Vedic language,  also adopt these blinkers.

In this second stage, therefore, it is clear that there was a vigesimal-effect where only the numbers 11-19 acquired distinctly inflected forms but not the other in-between numbers from 21-99.

This second stage of development of the Indo-European number system is not found recorded in any text or document in North India because the older Sanskrit numbers of the first stage had become frozen in form and the Prakrits are recorded from a much later post-Buddhist period in the second half of the 1st millennium BCE, long after the departure of the other branches of Indo-European languages westwards from India, and after the diffusion of the Vedic Sanskrit culture to the Dravidian South, all of which must have taken place at a point of time when the Indo-Aryan languages of the North still had a numeral system at the second stage of development.

The third stage of development of the Indo-European number system, where the number system continued to become more and more subject to inflection and fusion between the tens-forms and the unit-forms, and the inflection in the formation of compound numbers spread to all the numbers from 11-99, is found in its earliest forms in most of the Prakrits and much more so in the modern Indo-Aryan languages of North India. In this stage, all the compound numbers between 10 and 100 acquired distinct forms with fusion and inflection between the tens and units words. The numbers 11-19, which had already become distinctly inflected in the second stage, therefore got a double dose of inflection:

1. Inthe first stage, we see that there is barely any inflection, where the numbers11-19 are formed just like the subsequent sets: thus 11: eka+daśa =ekā-daśa, 12: dvi+daśa = dvā-daśa, etc. Compare with 21: eka+viṁśati =eka-viṁśati, 22: dvi+viṁśati = dvā-viṁśati, etc.
2. Inthe second stage, which as we saw is unrecorded in India, there must have clearly been greater fusion and inflection in 11-19, but not in the later sets 21-29, etc.
3. Inthe third stage, we find strong inflection in all the numbers, but:
4. a) In the numbers after 20, the tens-forms and unit-forms are still recognizable: Hindi  21: ek+bīs = ikk-īs, 22: do+bīs = bā-īs (both do- and bā- are recognizable as forms of an original dva-).
5. b) In the numbers 11-19, there is a clear case of further fusion and inflection: Hindi 11: ek+das = gyārah, 22: do+das + bārah, etc., where the tens and unit elements are even more fused, inflected and changed as to make recognition of the original elements more difficult: the –r– element in modern Indo-Aryan numbers from 11-19 is difficult to recognize as a development from the word for 10. [A similar process of further inflection seems to have taken place in the westernmost IE branch Germanic, where 11 and maybe 12, at least, seem to have continued to become more inflected later, making recognition of the elements difficult: English 11: one+ten = eleven, German eins+zehn = elf (German), etc. Note also: Germanic languages are also the only modern languages outside India retaining the original unit+tens order in their compound numbers after 20].

[Note on Sanskrit vis-à-vis Prakrits vis-à-vis modern Indo-Aryan:

The earliest beginnings of the third stage can be seen in most of the recorded Prakrits. But the literary Prakrits were actually highly Sanskritized or Sanskrit-imitating approximations of the spoken forms of Indo-Aryan speech of the time, and so they do not reflect the actual state of the spoken speech of the time. Thus, for example:

1. a) For the number22,Pali texts alternately use both dvāvīsati (imitating Sanskrit dvāviṁśati) and bāvīsa (similar to modern Indo-Aryan form bāvīs, etc.).
2. b) ThePaliword, paññāsa/paṇṇāsa for 50, is closer in form to the modern Indo-Aryan word pannās for 50 than to the Sanskrit word pañcāśat for 50.

But its uniform use in that form (-paññāsa/-paṇṇāsa) in all the compound unit+tens numbers (i.e. in 49 and 51-58) reflects imitation of the similar use of the word –pañcāśat in Sanskrit rather than the use of multiple forms in modern Indo-Aryan languages:

Hindi: –cās (49), –van (51,52,54,57,58), –pan (53,55,56).

Marathi: –pannās (49), –vanna (51,52,55,57,58), –panna (53,54,56).

Gujarati: –pacās (49), –van (51,52,55,57,58), –pan (53,54,56).

Similiarly, its uniform use of the form pañca– (5) in all the compound unit+tens numbers (25,35,45, etc.) reflects imitation of the similar use of the same word pañca- in Sanskrit rather than the use of multiple forms in modern Indo-Aryan languages:

Hindi: pacc- (25), paĩ– (35,45,65), pac- (55,75,85), pañcā- (95),

Marathi: pañc- (25), pas- (35), pañce- (45), pañçā- (55), pā- (65), pañcyā(75,85,95)

Gujarati: pacc- (25), pāã– (35,65), pis– (45), pañc- (75,85), pañcā- (55,95)].

Therefore, the area of North India was home to the first stage of development of the Indo-European number system (as represented by Vedic and Classical Sanskrit, and perhaps colloquial Sinhalese?), as well as to the third stage, both of which are found only in North India, while all the other branches of Indo-European languages outside North India (include literary Sinhalese) representthe second stage. This clearly indicates that the Original Homeland of all these languages was in North India, and they migrated from India during a period when the Indo-Aryan languages of the North were at the second stage, and shared a similar vigesimal-affected decimal system.

2. The Spread of the Vigesimal-Affected Decimal Number-System:

As we saw, the first and third stages of development of the Indo-European decimal number system, as shown by what we have called the vigesimal-effect (i.e. where the numbers 11-19 are formed in a distinctly different way from the later sets like 21-29, 31-39, etc.), are found only in North India, and the second stage is found in all the branches outside North India (and therefore must have logically existed in North India in an intervening period, even if not recorded), shows that the Original Homeland of all these Indo-European languages was in North India.

And an examination of the areas and languages which have this “vigesimal-affected decimal number-system” leads to the same conclusion:

There are many stray languages among the thousands of native American (Amerindian) languages with decimal systems, which have distinctly different formations for the numbers 11-19 on the one hand and subsequent sets like 21-29, 31-39, etc. on the other. We saw the examples of Cherokee and Navaho, and there must be many more. The explanation for this can be the effect of neighboring languages with vigesimal systems, and there are many of them in America: we saw the examples of the Nahuatl (Aztec), Yucatec (Mayan) and Yupik languages. Likewise, we saw the example of the Kanuri language in the interior of Africa which also clearly has a vigesimal–affected decimal system, and, again, there may be many more such languages in Africa. But obviously, these remote languages of America and Africa cannot have a place in the history of the origin and spread of the Indo-European languages or number systems.

The other languages which have vigesimal–affected decimal systems are: some Uralo-Altaic languages (e.g. Finnish, Estonian), some Semito-Hamitic languages (e.g. Arabic, Hebrew, Maltese), some Austronesian languages (e.g. Malay, Tagalog), and the Dravidian languages of South India. However, barring the Dravidian languages, the following points may be noted about the other languages:

1. The vigesimal–affected decimal feature is not found in the families as a whole: thus, the other relatives of Finnish and Estonian do not have this vigesimal–affected decimal system (check Hungarian, Turkish, Mongolian, etc. earlier in this article). Nor do the other relatives of Arabic, Hebrew and Maltese (check the ancient and modern Hamitic languages, Amharic earlier in this article, and the available data on the ancient Semitic languages). And nor do the other relatives of Malay and Tagalog (check Hawaiian earlier).
2. Except perhaps Arabicand Hebrew, the other languages are clearly or arguably influenced by Indo-European languages. Check what the Wikipedia entry has to say about Maltese:

“Maltese has evolved independently of Literary Arabic and its varieties into a standardized language over the past 800 years in a gradual process of Latinisation.^[5][6] Maltese is therefore considered an exceptional descendant of Arabic that has no diglossic relationship with Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic,^[7] and is classified separately from the Arabic macrolanguage.^[8] Maltese is also unique among Semitic languages since its morphology has been deeply influenced by Romance languages, namely Italian and Sicilian“.

The Malay and Tagalog languages may have been influenced by Indian languages: S.E. Asia was under the influence of Indian culture since almost two millennia.

Finnish (and the very closely related Estonian) are known to have a large number of Indo-European (even specifically Indo-Aryan and Iranian) borrowings. Also, the word for “hundred” in Finnish is sata, and in Estonian is sada.

3. The numbers 11-19 are certainly formed differently from the later numbers in all the above languages, but in every single one of them, the tens and unit forms are not fused together (except in Maltese, which, as seen above is a dialect of Arabic highly influenced in its morphology by Indo-European languages), and so the numbers 11-19 do not require to be individually learned since they are formed by simple juxtaposition: check the numbers in all these languages detailed earlier in this article.

In sharp contrast to this, in the Dravidian languages:

1. All the languages have this vigesimal–affected decimal system.
2. The tens and unit words in 11-19 are fused together by inflection.

So the Indo-European languages outside North India, and the Dravidian languages in South India, are the only families of languages in the world which share this vigesimal–affected decimal feature as a whole and in almost the same way (inflection found only in 11-19 but not after 20). Obviously this cannot be a coincidence.

[The only difference is that the Dravidian numbers 1-19 have the word-order tens+unit. This shows two things: that Dravidian was influenced by Indo-Aryan in this vigesimal-effect, but also that it did not change its original more logical word-order for the less logical Indo-Aryan one].

Generally, we find common elements between the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian languages which are not found in the other Indo-European languages outside India (e.g. the cerebralretroflex consonants, many grammatical features and words, etc. or even words for specifically Indian flora and fauna). These are usually attributed (in most cases probably correctly) to Dravidian influence on the Indo-Aryan languages. But then a conclusion sought to be drawn from these common features is that it proves that the Indo-European homeland cannot be in India, since in that case these features should have been found in some Indo-European languages outside India as well, and so this proves the AIT (Aryan Invasion Theory) and disproves the OIT (Out-of-India Theory). But this logic is extremely faulty for two reasons:

1. The other branches of Indo-European languages, in the OIT scenario, were situated well to the west of the Indo-Aryan languages and away from any influence from the Dravidian languages of South India, and, in any case, they had started migrating out northwestwards in a very early period, around 3000 BCE. So they obviously did not participate in any common Indo-Aryan-Dravidian linguistic innovations in the interior of India, or get affected by any Dravidian features.
2. The example of the purelyIndo-Aryan Romany (Gypsy) language of Europe – which undisputedly migrated from India just over a thousand years ago, but did not take with it either the retroflex consonants, or Dravidian words, or words for specifically Indian flora and fauna – shows the faultiness of this logic.

But in this case, we find the common element is between the Dravidian languages of South India and the Indo-European languages outside India, and it is not found in either Sanskrit or the modern Indo-Aryan languages of North India!

We get a clear picture of a decimal number system developing in a core area in North India, occupied by the Indo-European languages which were spread out in a sprawling area between the Austric languages in the east and Burushaski in the north-northwest:

1. In the first stage, the number system which developed was apurely decimal system, which became frozen or fossilized in the Vedic language and in later Sanskrit.
2. In the second stage, this system continued to evolve and was influenced in its further evolution to a small extent by the surrounding vigesimal number systems, and developed into a vigesimal-affected decimal system, where the unitary nature of the numbers 1-10 was extended to the next set of ten numbers by fusing and inflecting the unit-word and tens-word numbers for 11-19  into single unitary words. This system spread out southwards to influence the formation of the number system in the Dravidian languages to the South, and spread out westwards and outwards from India with the expansion and migration of the other (then non-Pūru or “non-Indo-Aryan”) Indo-European dialects from India, which later spread out to Central Asia, West Asia and Europe. This system prevailed on the ground in the core area in North India, but the fossilized system of the first stage alone continued to be recorded in the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit texts.
3. In the third stage, after the migration of the other Indo-European dialects and the standardization of the number system in the Dravidian languages of the South, at some time in the late second or the early first millennium BCE, the system on the ground in the core area of North India continued to evolve, i.e. to become more and more unitary, with the unitary nature of the numbers 1-20 now extended to all the numbers 1-99, by fusing and inflecting the unit-word and tens-word numbers for 21-99  into single unitary words. This system came to be recorded in its earliest form in the Prakrit texts, and in more fully developed only in the last thousand years or so after the modern Indo-Aryan languages developed into literary languages.

All this constitutes one more piece of very strong evidence for the OIT and one more nail in the coffin of the AIT.

It is the “Loot List” 2 of India. In addition to the looters, who had connived and facilitated this loot must also be caught and brought before the law.

Public knowledge reveals that most of all these “loans” (camouflaged as loans with the intention not to ever repay them) were granted before 2014, that is, before the Modi government came into power.

After four years since 2014, there is now a good news in 2018: Under the legal force of “Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code”, these defaulters are turning up back to “repay” their loans. Bhushan Steel, who had a whopping amount of more than Rs. 36, 000 Crores as “loan” against it,  has been sold under the provision of this Code and bought by the Tatas for 36,000 Crores, which amount is deposited in Bank and liable to be taken back as repayment of that loan. Many more are now in the queue to make the payment – or refund back.

Out of this ‘loan fraud’ who got what?

Bhushan Steel lost its entire assets of the value of more than 36, 000 Crore. Tata got an industry of the value of more than 36 000 Crore. Bank got back its 36 000 Crore NPA from Bhushan Steel. India got a boost to its economy. Other ‘looters’ got a message!

All gained something and the net loser is Bhushan Steel.

Also, it is a public knowledge that, taking a cue from the fate of Bhushan Steel under this Code, 2100 defaulter companies have now approached their creditor Banks to “repay their loans”!! It is a good news for Indians !

Here is the list No. 2:

Sequence: Bank’s Name – Borrower’s Name – Directors’ Name – Amount in Rs. Lacs

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Winsome Diamonds Jewellery Ltd.
Jatin R. Mehta, Ramesh I. Parikh, R. Ravichandran, Satya Prakash
Tanwar (Nom) Nominated by Consortium Banks, Harish R. Mehta,
Jaikumar Madanlal Kapoor, Harimohan Namdev. 27686.00

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Siddhi Vinayak Logistic Ltd. Roop Chand Baid, Rajkumar Baid, Ravi Kothari, Deepak Kumar Baid 18512.00.

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Biotar Industries Ltd. Rajesh Managaldas Kapadia, Bharat Mangaldas Kapadia, Dinesh Ranchhoddas Kapadia 5000.00.

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Victoria Agro Food Processing Pvt Ltd Ashish Marwah, Mahendrakumar Jajoo 2008.84

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sterling Biotech Limited Nitin J Sandesara, Chetan J Sandesara, Vilas D Joshi, P B Mehata, N B Patel, R B Dixit 1942.00

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Ispat Infrastructure (India) Ltd. Kapil Ravi Ghai, Nikhil Ravi Ghai, Ashish Ravi Ghai 1690.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Nav Bharat Press (Bhopal) Pvt.Ltd Prafulla Ramgopal Maheshwari, Sumeet Prafulla Maheshwari, Brij Prafulla Maheshwari, Sandeep Prafulla Maheshwari, Sanjeev
Prafulla Maheshwari, Deepak Saxena
1545.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Athena Financial Services Ltd. Madan Indrabhan Kochar, Sumatilal Shivlal Nahar, Dalichand M Singhavi, M S Nair, Gopinath S Kulkarni 1498.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA P & S Collection A. Sivakumar (Proprietor) 1284.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Amtek Universal Mr. Indrajeet Chatterjee 1198.08
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Accura Infotech Pvt. Ltd. Navneet Singh Gogia, Simran Kour Gogia 1089.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Ralson Industries Ltd. Rajnish Pahwa, Rajeev Pahwa, Satya Praksh Pahwa, Prem Sagar Sharma, Parveen Chawla, Sham Sunder 979.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Fusion Control Ravi Kishanrao Kulkarni(Proprietor) 886.00

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA NKH Enterprises Jagjeet Singh, Manjeet Singh Kang 701.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Bitum Impex Meenakshi Ajay Marwah 645.00

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Maven Life Sciences Pvt. Ltd. Donkena Purna Sri w.o Sridhar, Donkena Yadgiri s/o Ilaiah, Marella Srinivas Reddy s/o Laxma Reddy 458.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Tousif Ahmed R. Momin Tousif Ahmed R. Momin 419.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Bombay Glass House Shaikh Mohammad Sabir, Mujahed Khan s/o Abdul Gaffar Khan,
Ajmatullah Khan s/o Rehman Khan 411.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Hamja Enterprises Fayaz Ahmed Khan s/o Bismillah Khan 411.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Town Traders Abdul Sayeed Abdul Soudagar 403.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Shaikh Moin Electrical Agency Shaikh Moinoddin Shaikh Amiroddin 385.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA AEW Infotech Pvt. Ltd. Mrs. Preeti Sunil Malik, Smt. Tanaya Deepak Gupta, Mr. Kelvin Pinto, Ms. Pinky Jadhwani, Mr. Vishal Vijay Moreshwar, Mr.
Abhishek Asrani, Mrs. Smita Vishal Moreshwar. 385.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Maharashtra Super Traders Shaikh Jafar Nizam Yaseen Shaikh 380.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Royal Traders Inayat Jafarali Khan 372.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Trimurti Enterprises Shaikh Irfan Shaikh Rahim Kasim 367.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA GRACE FILAMENTS P LTD. NEERAJ SANTOSH, SWAMI PRASAD SANTOSH, ANAND SWAROOP (RESIGNED IN 2006), AARTI SWAROOP (RESIGNED IN 2006) 365.00

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Dehliwala Agencies Azaz Ahemad Khan Bismillakhan 363.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA A S Agencies Qutubuddin Sayed Saber 354.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Affan Trading Khan Rameez Raja, Shahana Parveen d/o Abdul Raheman Khan 354.00

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Viva Enterprises Bharat Shashikant Naik (Proprietor) 349.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Praktika I T Solutions Pvt. Ltd. Vandeep Gupta, Smt. Tanaya Deepak Gupta, Mrs. Preeti Sunil
Malik, Mr. Pankaj Pitambar Sarawade, Ms. Anjali Natrajan 336.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Universal Enterprises Radha Krishna Madanlal Goenka-Expired, Deepak Radhakrishna
Goenka, Mrs.Meeradevi Radhakrishna Goenka, Rekha Radhakrishna Goenka
325.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Spl Technochem Limited . Mukesh Mohanlal Shah, Shreyansh Seth, Sanjay Dhandukiya, Subhash Shukal, Vatsal Parkh 269.08
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA M/S Sri Jagannath Agro Tech Ltd Mr.J.T.K.Sonu Singh. 231.32
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Salasar Rayon Pvt.Ltd. Ramesh Radhyshyam Jakhotia, Mrs.Renu Ramesh Jakhotia 214.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Maa Jagdamba Oversease Kishan Lal Chawla (Proprietor) 195.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA M/S Anukul Cold Storage( Pvt.) Ltd Deb Kumar Pal, Uday Kumar Pal 179.21
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sumedh Synthetics Pvt.Ltd Ramesh Radhyshyam Jakhotia, Mrs.Renu Ramesh Jakhotia 179.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Ryan International Pvt Ltd Abhijit A. Sarkar, Nayana Abhijit Sarkar (Mrs) 174.21
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA
DSL Enterprises P.Ltd.(earlier Datar
Switchge Rajan Bhalchandra Datar M.D., Mrs.Shobhana Rajan Datar,
Kamlesh Morarji, K.R.Ghaisas Exe.Director, A.K. Shrivastav (Nomi.
IFCI) 174.00

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Verma Extrusion Pvt Ltd Harish Laliwala, Devika Laliwal, Vijay C Dalal 164.98
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Extreme Automation (Partnership) Ravi Krishnarao Kulkarni (Partner), Vinod J Patel (Partner) 161.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Salasar Fibres Pvt.Ltd. Ramesh Radheshyam Jakhotia, Mrs.Renu Ramesh Jakhotia 150.00
BANK OF Chennai Shipping Ltd Mr. M Sekaran 148.00
MAHARASHTRA BANK OF
MAHARASHTRA Tamilnad Marketing Sri. T . Palani (Proprietor) 141.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Salasar Enterprises Ramesh Radheshyam Jakhotia 93.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Rajasthan Marketing Corp. Ramesh Radheshyam Jakhotia (Karta) 91.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sonal Traders Anoop Kumar Gupta 88.80
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Harsha Sudhir Mehta Harsha Sudhir Mehata 75.29
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Pooja Enterprises Romen Mohanlal Patel 73.34

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sidhant Paryatan Suvidha Kendra Dinesh Shantaram Jaitapkar (Proprietor) 70.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Mayuresh Estate Agent Dattatray Maruti Lavate 67.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sidhant Hotel Neelima Dinesh Jaitapkar (Proprietor) 62.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA
Nilesh Balasaheb Dhamdhere/
Dattatrat T Dhamdhere Nilesh Balasaheb Dhamdhere, Dattatraya T Dhamdhere 60.18
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Vitta Mazda Ltd Dara Kaikhushroo Deboo, Yezdi Jamshed Master 59.20
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Simplex Industries Govind Laxman Pise 53.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Mahavir Trading Company Romen Mohanlal Patel 50.86
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Anup Trading Company satish kumar sahu 49.37
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Rasim Enterprises(Proprietorship) Rakesh Arora 49.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Prakash Traders satish kumar sahu 48.95
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Modern Electronics K. Venu 48.53

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Rellicon Plastics Kishor Vasant Dani 46.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Rsp Interior Exterior Services R. Surendra Paul 45.55
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Mangalkrupa Construction Bholabhai Valjibhai Patel 44.83
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Suhas V Gadre Suhas V Gadre 44.47
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sneha Interior Decors M. Rajendrakumar 43.86
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Aplomb Trade Links Shalini Ramesh Bhagat (Mrs), Aparna Hiren Bhagat 42.17
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Balaji Food Products Mada PratapKumar 41.11
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sai Dental Servises Mr. P. Kesavulu 39.69
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Iswarya Health Camp Servises R. Sandhya 37.47
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Morwal Engineers (India) Pvt. Ltd. Nagesh Laxman Malage, Kamal Nagesh Malage 36.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Earn Sales And Services Pvt Ltd Niraj Vishnu Bendale, Prakash Shankar Sapkale 35.95
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Riddhi Traders Romen Mohanlal Patel 35.22
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Balaji Insulation Co Ashokkumar Sharma 35.18
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA AAR VEE Textiles (Proprietorship) Vikram Vinod Jain 35.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Komandor Technologies M. Leelasai Kumar 34.80

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Anant Residency K Shridharan 33.90

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Dr. Sandeep Sharma Dr. Sandeep Sharma (Individual) 32.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sheetal Enterprises Ajay S. Marwah (Partner), Pankaj Takkar (Partner) 31.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Mr. Kailas Bhagwandas Gupta Kailas Bhagwandas Gupta 31.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sandeep Arun Deshmukh Sandeep Arun Deshmukh 30.59
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Manohar Pandurang Khade Manohar Pandurang Khade 29.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA I J S Infotech (Partnership) S Davinder Singh, Mrs Kulwant Kaur 29.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Passidon Images Sagar Rathod, Aswin Lakhanpal 26.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Alfa Agency Romen Mohanlal Patel 25.31
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Monika Agencies Romen Mohanlal Patel 25.31

BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Peninsula Trading Co Romen Mohanlal Patel 25.31
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sai Enterprises Romen Mohanlal Patel 25.31
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Vinayak Corporation Romen Mohanlal Patel 25.31
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Girish Dutt Gajja Girish Dutt Gajja 25.07
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Kalpesh Fulchand Gandhi Kalpesh Phulchand Gandhi 25.00
BANK OF MAHARASHTRA Sri Venkata Sai Mens Hostel Mr. Venkatratnam 18.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Iswari Spinning Mills P Senthil Kumar (Proprietor) 5318.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Srivari Trading Company (P) Ltd P K Balasubramanian, Shobana Balasubramanian 1117.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Padmini Jewellers Pushpesh Kumar Baid, Kokila Devi Baid 558.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Sound Craft Industries Rajakumar C, Basanthani, Babu Basan, Vishnu Basan, Ramesh
Verma 547.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Malabar Sand and Stones Haris Cherattiadan, Mariyam Beevi 496.00

CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK S R Traders Rhiyas K P (Prop) 430.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK K M Stone Crusher Ansar C (Mg.Partner), Jabeera K (Partner), Divakaran (Partner) 391.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK George Fernades GeorgeFernandes (individual) 226.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Dakshin Agro Tech (P) Ltd Chandrasekaran K, Ajay Chandran, Arun Chandran, Devi Prasad R 210.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Vennila Fernades Vennila Fernades (Individual) 186.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Photomax Sales And Services K R SREENIVASAN,PROP 168.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Ayodhya Machine Chain Deepak M Patel (Mg Partner ), Bhaskar S Pawar (Partner) 118.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Chandra Engineers B Chandran Pillai, Suriya Engineers&Fabrica, Suma Enterprises 115.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Supreme Chemiplast Pipings Pvt Ltd SIMON JOSEPH, SIMLEE SIMON 100.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Sha Traders K Rafeeque (Prop) 86.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK JMJ Susee Travels A Thomas (Partner), T Suseeladevi (Partner) 74.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK
Mayur Cardamom Curing &
Processing Sunitha James (Proprietor) 73.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN Asian Marketing Pincy Thomas (Prop) 70.00

CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Awareness
Debasmita Mohanty (President), Sidhartha Sankar Mishra
(secretary), Jishukrishna Kanungo, Ramesh Chandra Das, Hillol
Kumar Boiti, Laxmi Priya Panda, Tunilata Swam 70.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Kerala Traders Maharoof K 61.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Rini Engineers And Others K M JOHNY ,SOLE PROP 53.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Harkirat Traders Amarjeet Singh Walia (Prop) 52.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Baboo Service Station Umapathi (alias) Rajesh, Suguna Saraswathi, D Dhanalakshmi, D
Santhosh Kumar 52.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Indiana Traders And Exports P.S.Babu (prop:) 49.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK HVP Engg.Co Hitesh V Pandya (Prop.) 49.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Vester Apparels M. R.Prakash (prop:), M .K.Rajalingam (Guaran 48.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Hashir C Hashir C (Prop) 47.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Sri Ganesh Knits Ganesh S (Prop:) 43.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Subramaniyam Agencies V. Subramaniam (Prop:) 40.00
CATHOLIC SYRIAN BANK Prestige Surgicals KUNCHIRAMAN NAIR(prop) 26.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
Winsome Diamonds & Jewellery
Ltd Ramesh I Parikh, R Ravichandran, Jatin Rajnikant Mehta Guarantor, Formerly Co Know as Suraj Diamonds&Jwell, Bombay
Diamonds Company Pvt Ltd, Kohinoor Diamonds Company Pvt Ltd
Gtee, Forever Diamonds Pvt Ltd Guarantor 54926.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
Electrotherm (India)Ltd
L29249GJ198PLC00912
Shri Mukesh Bhandari PAN AALPB1974B, Shri Shailesh Bhandari
PAN AALPB1973G, Shri Avinash Bhandari PAN ABRPB0303P, Shri
Nilesh Desai PAN ACMPD1404F, Shri Ram Singh PAN ALIPS3069E,
Brig Pradipkrishna Prasad PAN AEFPP2560K 38526.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA S Kumars Nationwide Ltd Shri Nitin S Kasliwal PAN AAQPK8114M, Smt Ranjitha
Godbole(IDBI)PAN ADDPG7069F, Shri Sujeet Bhale (EXIM) PAN
ABOPB8982B, Shri Vijay Kalantri PAN AACPK4653P, Shri Anil
Channa PAN ACMPC4510B, Shri Jagadeesh S Shetty PAN
ABXPS2218Q 28390.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
Forever Precious Jewellery &
Diamonds Ltd Nimesh B Patel, Vinod Rajendra Jain, Harimohan Namdev, Pranav Dalal, Jatin Rajnikant Mehta Gurantor, C-5/D-4,Hermes House, Mama Parmanand Hous, Opera House- MUMBAI-400004. 25407.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Surya Vinayak Ind Ltd Rajiv Sukhbir Prasad Jain, Rajeev Kewalkumar Jain, Someshkumar
Subhashchand Jain, Anil Hansraj Juneja, Kamal Kishore Ram Kishore Gupta, Sateesh Subhsh Chand Jain, Ramesh Kumar Sardari Lal Sareen, Rohit Rabinder Nath Chowdhary, Sanjay Sukhbir Prasad Jain, Sanjeev Chheda Lal Agarwwal 15499.00
CENTRAL BANK OF
INDIA TAURUS EARTHMOVERS LTD.
SIDDHARTH NARAYAN S/O. NARAYAN SIDDHAPUR, VANITHA
NARAYAN W/0. NARAYAN SIDDHAPUR, AARTI NARAYAN W/O.
SIDDHARTH NARAYAN
13043.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Best & Crompton Engineering Projects Ltd
CINNo U28920TN1999PLCO43385PAN AABCB5248, B NARAYANSAMY PAN ABXPB8425A, K SRINIVAS KALYAN RAO PAN APAPKO383H, M R K VARMA PAN ADMPM6047L 12168.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Indian Technomac Co Ltd Rakesh Kumar Sharma PAN AAXPS4084R, Vinay Sharma PAN BTBPS1237C, Aswani Sahoo PAN ACKPSO588H, Satya Narain
Nandi PAN AABPN7295H, Ranganathan Sriniwasan PAN AAYPR8160Q, Gurupath Merchandise Ltd Guarantors, Thunder Traders Ltd Guarantors
7553.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
ARSS DAMOH HIRAPUR TOLLS PVT
LTD. SOUMENDRA KESARI PATTANAIK BHU.AFNPP7713, SUNIL
AGARWAL NAYAPALLIBHUB. AATPA3718Q, SHIVKUMARSINGLA
NAYAVIHARCUTT AHZPS1418G, ABHISHEKDAMODARJAJOO PITAM
DEL AGSPZ3959, SUBHASHAGARWAL
GTRNAYAPALLIBHUBNESHWAR, SUNIL AGARWAL GTR NAYAPALLIBHUBNESHWAR, COR.GTR ARSSINFRASTRUCTURE PRO.L MAN.BHU 7461.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
Artee Roadways PLtd PAN
AAECA5178Q CIN no U63090GJ2002PTC041031, Dipak Chandrakant Shah PAN
AJGPS8977F, Jagdish Nathala Shah PAN AQFPS4928N, Mrs Shailaben Chandrakant Shah. 6190.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Ambika Solvex Ltd Shri Kailash Chand Garg, Director, Shri Suresh Chand Garg,
Director, Shri Arjun Das Hotwani, Director, Narayan Ambika
Infrastructures P Ltd. 5978.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
DECCAN CHRONICLE HOLDINGS
LTD TIKKAVARAPU VENKATRAM REDDY, TIKKAVARAPU VINAYAK RAVI
REDDY, P K IYER 4995.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
DECCAN CHRONICLE HOLDINGS
LTD TIKKAVARAPU VENKATRAM REDDY, TIKKAVARAPU VINAYAK RAVI
REDDY, P K IYER 4995.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
Dunlop India Ltd CIN
L25191WB1926PLC008539
Shri Pawan Kumar Shyamlal Ruia, Shri Ram Krishen Sadhu, Shri Dipak Rudra, Shri Virendra Kr Agarwal, Shri R K Budhiraja, Shri Damodar Prasad Dani, Shri Shiv Narayan Maheshwary, Shri
Mohanlal Chauhan, Shri Ashok Kumar Agarwal, Shri Subbarathnam Ravi
4928.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SUN EARTH CERAMICS LTD. SURESH G MOTWANI, VINOD G MOTWANI, KISHORE G MOTWANI, JOY MANGLANI, PHIL STEVENSON, ASHOK PARANJAPE, D.K.PATEL, PRAMOD BHUCHAR, VISHNU VARSHNEY, SUSHMA DESHMUKH, DEEPAK KUMAR DUTTA
4108.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
C & M FARMING P. LTD. (C & M
GROUP) ELIAS D. D’SOUZA, RICHARD M. D’SOUZA, RUDOLF A. LIMA,
MELVIN E. D’SOUZA 3541.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NEESA INFRASTRUCTURE LTD. SANJAY GUPTA SATE.RD AHMD.51 ABUPG5799B, NEELU
GUPTASAT.RD.AHMD.51 GUJ ADYPG0351, ARVINDKUMARGUPTA
SAT.AHMD.15. AERPG2839N, MANOJ KR.SINGHAL UTTAMNGR
NDEL.ARFPS7604, YOGESHGHISUMALGEMAWAT MANINGR
ADVPG4051D, SHAILESH MODI SAT.RD. AHMD15 ACRPM2225L,
SANJAY GUPTA GTR SAT.RD.AHMD51 ABUPG5799, NEELU GUPTA
SAT.RD.AHMD51 GTR ADYPG0351K, TECHNODOT ENG.LT.CORP.GTEE.N.D AABCT5392, NEESAAGRITECH&FOODS
LTD.CORGTE AACCS7851. 3381.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA ATV PROJECTS LTD. M.V.CHATURVEDI, E.C.P.PRABHAKAR IAS RETD, V.K.SAXENA, S.P.BANERJEE, S.N.KAUL, K.V. GEORGE(IDBI NOMINEE, V
NARAYLAN, MANOJ KUMAR CHANDUKA, (IFCI NOMINEE)
2979.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Brand House Retails Ltd Shri Nitin S Kasliwal PAN AAQPK8114M, Shri Vijay Kalantri PAN
AACPK4653P, Shri Jagadeesh S Shetty PAN ABXPS2218Q 2809.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA STEEL TUBES OF INDIA LTD. R. B. BAHETI, N. P. JAIN, V. M. KSHIRSAGAR, K. N. GARG. 2720.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
Firefly Energy Ltd. U29219GJ1993PLC019848
Bhavdeep Indulal Doshi, Ashish Viklifbhai Christain Pan
AEHPC6113, Shailesh Bhanwarlal Bhandari PanAALPB1973, Anil
Kumar Amrutlal Patel PAN AJIPP9279K, Mukesh Bhanwarlal Bhandari PAN AALPB1974. 2530.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Indian Technometal Co Ltd Rakesh Kumar Sharma PAN AAXPS4084R, Vinay Sharma PAN BTBPS1237C, Ashwini Kumar Sahoo PAN ACKPSO588H, Indian
Technomac Company Ltd Guarantor, BMT Chrome Alloys PLtd
Guarantor, Indian Technolime Company Ltd Guarantor 2494.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Paramount Airways P Ltd CIN U45201TN998PTC040435, MR M THIAGARAJAN, MRS LAKSHMI MURUGESAN 2484.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MUNIS FORGE LTD AMARCHAND H MEHTA, RAJENDRA KUMAR M MEHTA, BIPIN B
MEHTA, DEEPAK B MEHTA, PARESH B MEHTA, MANISH A MEHTA, YATIN B MEHTA 2476.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
ROOFIT INDUSTRIES LTD.
(MOTWANI GROUP) SURESH MOTWANI, KISHORE MOTWANI, VINOD MOTWANI 2113.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA APPLE FINANCE LTD. DR. A.C.SHAH, MR.M.K.JANAK, MR.VIVEK G.CHAUBAI,
MR.V.GOPALKRISHNAN, MR.H.P.NAG CHOUDHARY, MR.K.C.SODHE, MR.V.K.KUMAR. 2107.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Best & Crompton Machinery Ltd CIN no U29253TN2007PLCO64452, A ANNAMALAI PAN
AEUPA7210G, G MUHILAN PAN AAEPM1373L, S
BALASUBRAMANIAN PAN AQQPB3664, G VINAYAGAM ACHPV52618. 1976.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA VIVITA LTD (MOTWANI GROUP) SURESH MOTWANI, KISHORE MOTWANI,, PRAFUL BHANUSHALI, MEGHASHYAM, GOTHIUREKAR, ATUL BHAGWATI 1832.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
C & M LAYER FARMS PVT. LTD. (C
& M. GROUP) ELIAS M D’SOUZA, RICHARD M. D’SOUZA, RUDOLF A. LIMA 1823.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Aashish Communications Systems Mr Ashish Kumar Singh, MS Philomena C Dias Guarantors, Mr Ashok Kumar Singh 1726.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA REVLON PEN COMPANY RADHIKA S MEHTA, PRABHAKAR B. SALWAY, MARTIN
KREINBUCHL, SHANKAR R. GOKHALE, AJIT R MHATRE, KISHORE J
MHATRE, DEEPAK B. MHATRE, RAJENDRA KUMAR TULI, BHARAT S
SHAH, SUHAS B. MHATRE, RAVINDRA B MHATRE 1675.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA V.S.INTERNATIONAL VIJENDER SINGH AHLAWAT N.DELHI ASFPA9313, SURANDER SINGH AHLAWAT N.DELHI AERPA6444, MURLEEDHARAN
PILLAIN.DELHI3 GT.AHSPP8037, BRIG.NARINDER SINGH ND.78 GTR
AEZPS2385B. 1532.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
CONSOLIDATED STEEL & ALLOYS
LTD. N.K.SOMANI, BHARAT SOMANI, HARI BHUSHAN, C. SUNDERAM 1475.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA BELLARY STEELS & ALLOYS LTD. S. MADHAVA, PARVATI S. MADHAVA, B. SUBBAIAH, K. KONDAIAH, S. RANGANATHAN 1350.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
MUTHU FISHERIES P. LTD.
(MUTHU GROUP) SHAHHUL HAMEED, NOORLLLLLUNISSA BEGUM, ROSALINA
BEGUM 1288.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MINICOMP LTD. KANAIYALAL RAMNIKLAL, SHETH, PRAGNA KANAIYALAL SHETH,
S.C.SAUJANI 1252.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA TEA PACK SPECIALITY LTD. ANUP INDIA LTD., DILKHOSA TEA ESTATE, S. DEBI AGARWAL, A.K.AGARWAL 1183.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NEESA AGRITECH AND FOODS LTD.
SANJAY GUPTA SAT.RD.AHMD51GUJ ABUPG5799B, NEELU GUPTA
SAT.RD.AHMD51GUJ. ADYPG0351K, ARVIND KR.GUPTA SAT. AHMD15GUJ. AERPG2839, MANOJ KR.SINGHAL N.DELHI69 ARFPS7604E, GIRISH C.MUKUNDLAL BALUNI AH13 AAKPB5408, SANJAYGUPTA GTRSAT.RD.AHMD51GU ABUPG5799,
NEELUGUPTA GTR SAT.RD.AHMD51GU ADYPG0351, NEESA TECHNO.PVT. L. AHMD.GUJ. AABCG5430A. 1130.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Sunil Ispat & Power Ltd Mukesh Kumar Agarwal, Hanuman Prasad Agarwal, Bharat Kumar Agarwal, Shyam Sundar Mall 1115.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Cab Com Cables Ltd Sandeep Sehgal PAN no AATPS0287J, Poonam Sehgal PAN no
AMZPS7497J, Joginder Kumar Sehgal PAN no AOMPS8276C, Janak Sehgal Guarantor, Cabcom Cables India Pvt Ltd, Electrable International Guarantor, Sandeep Sehgal Guarantor, Poonam
Sehgal Guarantor, Joginder Kumar Sehgal Guarantor 1105.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SPL TECHNOCHEM LTD. MUKESH SHAH, SHREYANSH SHAH 1019.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA INDO IRISH FOODS LTD. ASHOK PURI, SARDAR SINGH GURJAR, S.S.JOGLEKAR 969.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
WEARWELL TYRE & TUBE
IND.P.LTD. SHEONARAYAN VERMA, SHARWAN VERMA 902.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SIMCO INDUSTRIES LTD. NANDKISHORE GOENKA, NAVALKISHORE GOENKA, ASHOK KUMAR KHEMKA, L. M. AGARWAL, B.D.DISHIT, G. M. DAVE 886.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Manik Logistics Pvt Ltd Sri Nandlal Sharma, Sri Santalal Sharma, Sri Kailash Kakra, Sri
Govind Prasad Sharma, Sri Sandeep Dayma 882.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
PRABHU HIRA ICE & COLD
STORAGE LTD. RAJESH PRABHUDAS THAKKAR, SATYAJIT PRABHUDAS THAKK, PRABHUDAS H. THAKKAR 829.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
SHAIFALI ROLLS (P) LTD
U27310GJ2004PLco4443
Prakash V Shah PAN ACUPS1892G, Mrs Sangita Prakash Shah PAN
AFGPS2938J 801.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Ranklin Solutions Ltd Mr M J V V D Prakash, Managing Director, Mr M J V V D Prakash, Divya, Mrs M Jyothsna Lakshmi Director, Mr M J V V Raghava
Kumar Director, Mr K Srinivasa Chakravarthy, Director, Mr M
Satish Kumar Director, Mr Penugonda Venkateswara Rao Director. 736.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA PRITHVI ISPAT PVT. LTD. DEEPAK BABULAL MEHTA, KIRIT BABULAL MEHTA 733.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA BAJAJ HIRERS & LESSORS LTD.
ARUNKUMAR DEVIDUTTA BAJAJ, MADHUSUDAN DEVIDUTTA
BAJAJ, SANT KUMAR AGARWAL, BADRINATH SRIVASTAV, RAJ
BAID, KIRIT SALAIVE, SUSHIL SARAF
707.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA JMD ALLOYS LTD. SANJAY GUPTA, DASRATH KUMAR GUPTA, BASANT KUMAR AGARWAL 667.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
SURYODAYA ALLO-METAL POWDERS LTD. SANJAY DEVIDAS SOANWANI, VINOD DEVIDAS SONAWANI,
ARVIND DEVIDAS SONAWANI 641.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
CONSUMER AWARENESS &
RESEARCH TRUST MANDADI KRISHNA REDDY, G.SURYANARAYANA, S SATHAIAH, N.ANURADHA, M VENKATA RAMANA 617.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RAM SUNAR ROLL STEELS LTD. ARIF DADI, SIDDIQUE SULEMAN DADA, SANJEEV V KHANNA, SHAFI ISHAQ DADI 609.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
VIVEKANAND EDUCATIONAL
SOCIETY RAJESH KUMAR SINGH, KESHA SINGH, NARAIN DIXIT, VIMLA
SINGH, RAHESH PRATAP SINGH, MEENA MISHRA, GOPAL DAS
SHARMA. 569.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
SYNERGY FINANCIAL EXCHANGE
LTD. S. VENKATARAMAN, Y.G.RAJENDRA 530.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
NUTECH ORGANICS CHEMICALS
LTD. T. G. VANAJA(MRS.), V. SHASHIKUMAR, A. H. VITTAL 526.00
CENTRAL BANK OF
INDIA ICCON OIL & SPECIALITIES LTD. TUSHAR SHAH, DHIMANT SHAH 522.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA ASSAM TUBES LTD. MR.RAJKUMAR SARAF, MR.CHIRAG SARAF, MRS.MEERA DEVI
SARAF 515.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA ANAND INTECHS LTD. S.N.CHATURVEDI, ANAND CHATURVEDI, KAUSHAL SHUKLA 500.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA ALPINE HOME PRODUCTS PVT. LTD DEEPAK CHAWLA, VIJAY KUMAR CHAWLA 494.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RIDER ELECTRONICS M.H.VORA, J. H. VORA 488.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA JAYESH FORGING CO. P. LTD. VINOD K. SHARMA, ELACHI V.SHARMA 477.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SANG FROID INDIA LTD. JAGDISH LAL SACHDEVA, NIRMAL SACHDEVA, VIJAI SACHDEVA,
SANJAI SACHDEVA, AJAI SACHDEVA, DARSHAN SINGH, JM SINGHAL. 472.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NAVALJI COTSPIN LTD. MR.NAVALKISHORE KOTHARI, MR.JUGALKISHORE KOTHARI, MR.MURLIMANOHAR MALPANI, MR.ASHISH DAGA, MR.PRAKASH LADDHA, MR.SHRIRANG CHANDAK, MR.SURESH ATAL, MR. VINOD LOHIYA, MR.NARSINGDASJI LADDHA, MR.HUKUMCHANDJI LAHOTI
469.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RAJASTHAN POLYSTERS PVT. LTD. B. K. SETHI, D. S. RAWAT, GIRISH GANERIWALA 456.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RISHABH ELECTRICALS PVT. LTD. YOGESH JAIN, RAKESH JAIN 449.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
GAJANAND FIBRE INDUSTRIES P.
LTD.(JHAKOTIAGRP RAMESH RADHESHYAM JAKHOTIA, RENUDEVI RAMESH JAKHOTIA 449.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA PARTH PROTIENS PVT. LTD. SHARADBHAI PRANJIVAN DAMANI, PANKAJ PRANJIVAN DAMANI, SEEMABEN PANKAJ DAMANI 440.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MAGNA CORP.INFONET LTD. O P NEMANI, AJAY NEMANI, UMA RANI, ARCHNA NEMANI 439.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA DHAR INDUSTRIES LTD. VINOD BIDASARIA, RAJIV BIDASARIA, RAHUL BIDASARIA 438.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RANE COMPUTER CONSULTANCY DINESH RANE, UJWALA DINESH RANE 431.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA CONTEXT EXPORTS PARAMJIT SINGH, RAJNATHSINGH 394.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
SACHDEVA & SONS INDUSTRIES
PVT. LTD. ASHOK SACHDEVA, C.L.SACHDEVA, LEELAWATI SACHDEVA, VINOD SACHDEVA 387.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MANDHANA FABRICS BABULAL RAMKISHAN MANDHA, GOVARDHAN B MANDHANA,
BHARAT B MANDHANA, SHRIKANT B MANDHANA, SHRINIVAS B
MANDHANA, SUNITA SHRIKANT MANDHANA, SMITA SRINIVAS
MANDHANA. 385.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Bar Trend Global Ltd Mr Pranab Chatterjee, Mrs Shreya Chatterjee, Mr Sayan
Chatterjee 384.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RAKHI ISPAT ALLOYS P. LTD. BDUL A LOKHANDWALA, KHALIDA A LOKHANDWALA, MUNWAR H
LOKHANDWALA 383.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
KIRLAMPUDI SUGAR MILLS LTD. C RAGHU RAM, SAPNA, B. P. SRIDHAR, G.A.S.REDDY, BHARAT KUMAR, K. RAMMOHAN RAO 376.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RAJMAHAL MOTELS (P) LTD. RAMESH DHINGRA, SUSHMA DHINGRA 365.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
S K SULTAN TRADING COMPANY
PVT LTD. SHAIKH ABDUL HANAN BHU. PAN NO ABRPH8363, HEMANT SUAR
PANNO BHUB. AVRPS60741, LIKHITA SUAR GTR PANNO BHUB.
DJPPS9856B, SRIMANT SUAR GTR PAN NOBHUB9. CYFPS8004M,
LINGARAJ SENA & OTRS GTR BHUB. ECEPS8164, SHAIKH ABDUL
HANAN GTR BHUB.2 ABRPH8363H, HEMANT SUAR GTR BHUB.
AVRPS60741, SUNDARI SENA GTR NIPANIA BHUBNESHWAR,
PUSHPANJALI SENA GTR NIPANIA BHUBNESHWAR, GITANAJALI
SENA GTR NIPANIA BHUBNESHWAR
362.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA JAINA CAST LTD. ANIL K. JAIN, ALKA JAIN, SUKHDEV RAJ JAIN 350.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SOUNDCRAFT INDUSTRIES LTD. RAJKUMAR BASANTANI, BABU BASAN, VISHNU BASAN, RAMESH
VARMA 346.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SAA OIL MILLS LTD. SAJJAD AMIR SAYED, REHANA SAJJAD SAYED 345.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
K. PARTHASARATHY SPINNING
MILLS P GOPALAKRISHNAN 344.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
BEGAWALA HOTELS & RESORTS
P.LTD. MR.RAJENDRA JAIN, MRS USHA JAIN, MR.NIRAJ JAIN, MR.RAHUL
JAIN 338.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SHIVANO HEALTH CARE K.J.DEDHIA, A.K. DEDHIA, K.K.DEDHIA, SHOBA G.VORA (MRS.) 331.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA VENUS MACHINERY & TOOLS KIRIT MANCHAND SHAH, PRAMIT MANCHAND SHAH, BIRENDER
SINGH REKHI 323.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA IMPERIAL CLOTHING IMPEX MUKESH D BHEDA, SACHIN P.ADIACHA 322.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA HI TECH FOOTWEAR H.M.B.MURTHY, JYOTIB.MURTHY 319.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA GOLD FLUIDS PVT. LTD S.P.BAGARIA, K.KRISHNAMURTHY, P.M.AGARWAL, S.S.BAGARIA (MRS) 317.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SIDH INDUSTRIES J.B.GARG, N.K.GARG, S.K.GARG, M.L.GUPTA 316.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NARENDRA KUMAR & CO. NARENDRAKUMAR P TUMBADIA 308.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA OXFORD GARMENTS & CLOTHING JANAK D. VEDANT, DEVAN M. VEDANT 306.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA ALL METAL INDUSTRIES LTD. ASHOK KAPOOR, S.G.A.SAFI, P.C.SARONA, KAWALJIT BAWA, VIKRAMJIT S. PURI 305.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
TARKESHWAR HATCHERIES PVT.
LTD RADHESHYAM SETHI, NIRAJ SETHI, ASWIN SETHI, RAJESH SETHI 300.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA AWADH WOOD PRODUCTS R S MAHESHWARI, M M MAHESHWARI, N K MAHESHWARI, VIMLA MAHESHWARI, R K MAHESHWARI 299.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA IRRIGATION ENGG. CO. LTD. R. K. TONDON, PRAVEEN DAWAR, MANJU MEHTA 295.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA S. A. COLD STORAGE P. LTD. SWAPAN BHAR, ARUP BOSE 294.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
Industrial Fastners (Prop:Nitin
Goenka) Manju Goenka W/o Ratan Goenka Guarantor, IndiraDevi Goenka
W/oRadheshyam Goenka, Sri Om Prakash Goenka Guarantors,
Laxmi Mondal D/o Gour Das MondalGuaranto, Parul Bala Mondal
Guarantors. 288.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NYAGRA TECHNOLOGIES LTD. KOLLI VENKATA REDDY S/O. KV SUBBA REDDY, KOLLI VENKATA RAMANA REDDY S/O. KV SUBBA, REDDY 288.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SHRI MAHALAXMI FARMS SUBHASH N. KOTHULE, KERU M. BHOSALE 285.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA PRIYA INTERCONTINENTAL VIJAY JINDAL, M.K. DARA 276.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA VIJAI INDUSTRIES B. M. MODI, B. N. MODI, U. MODI, NARAYAN STEEL COMPLEX,
KRISHNA INDUSTRIES 274.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MAHARAJA ART PALACE PVT. LTD. RAMAN AGARWAL, SUNITA AGARWAL(MS.), NARESH AGARWAL 273.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA R.K.CONSTRUCTION RAMESH B. KEWALRAMANI 272.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA TIWARI BECHAR & CO. ROOP KUMARI TIWARI, MADHUR TIWARI 271.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA BHANU RICE LAND RAKESH KUMAR JINDAL(PROP 269.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SHILPI MODES ARVIND AGARWAL 265.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA VPL TRAVELS PVT. LTD. V.P. BHATIA, RAMESH BHATIA, LOKESH BHATIA, VIVEK BHATIA 261.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MARATHON INDIA P. LTD ANURAG DUBE, B.K.DUBE, ASHA DUBE 259.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA K.S.ELECTRICALS K.S.SHUKLA, VIKAS SHUKLA, VIVEK SHUKLA 257.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MUKTANAND PIPES LTD. RAJINDERSINGH AHLUWALIA, RAVINDERSINGH AHLUWALIA,
KULJINDERSINGH AHLUWALIA 254.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA GAURI ENTERPRISES BALASAHEB D.KORPE, JITENDRA M. SHINDE 252.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
Sri Chakra Gold Farms and Villas
Ltd Mr DarisiNarendra PAN no AVTPDO901F, Smt Darisi Aruna Devi
MD PANno AVTPDO900, Mr Nidamanuri Anil Kumar PAN no AEEPN6037, Mrs Telaprolu Bhargavi PAN no AIQPT8010M, Mr N V Suresh Kumar PAN no AJRPN02988, Mrs Nidamanuri
Hymavathi Guarantor. 252.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA DUGGAL EXPORTS ARVIND DUGGAL S/O N.K.DU 248.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA DUJOHN LABORATORIES LTD. ARUN GOEL, MANOJ GOEL 248.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA E SEFTON & CO (P) LTD. RAMJEELAL MAHESHWEERI, HEMANT MAHESHWERI, HEMANSHU
MAHESHWERI, SAATYA NARAYAN DHANUKA, RAJAN JHABARIA 246.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MAHARASHTRA TRADERS ANIL DATTATRAYA WAKANKAR 244.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA KOHINOOR TEA CO. LTD. NATHOMAL DAGA, SHASHIKANTA DAGA, SARLA DEVI DAGA, INDRA KUMAR DAGA, SUSHIL KUMAR DAGA, RAJ KUMAR DAGA,
AMIT KUMAR DAGA, PURNENDU MAJUMDER, ASHOKE MITRA
241.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NIKHUNJ MARKETING ZAFAR S.DAUD, RASHIDA Z. DAUD 241.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NBD PHARMA PVT. LTD. VINOD MITRA, G. MITRA, S.P.BHOSALE 240.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SHRI ATHARVA TRADING PVT. LTD. DHANANJAY PATIL, TULSHIRAM POKHORKAR 238.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
XLO UNITED CLUTCH PRODUCTS
LTD. S.C.SARAN, J.N.MEHROTRA, NARINDER KUMAR, RAGHU RAJ 234.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NUMARK PHARMA IMPEX GOPAL DADHIA, MANISH DADHIA 231.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA K. P. STEELS LTD. RAJENDRA KUMAR GUPTA, KRANTI KUMAR GUPTA, RAJINI
KUMAR GUPTA 228.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA AMRUTA AGENCIES GIRISH RAJARAM KULKARNI, MUKUND CHANDRAKANT AJABE, RAJENDRA VASANT BODHANI 225.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
WESTERN INDIA HARDWARE
MART KANTILAL VASSA(PARTNER), HARSHAD K VASSA(PARTNER), F. K.
VASSA(PARTNER) 224.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA OBEROI PLASTICS LTD. RAVI OBEROI, ANIL OBEROI 218.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA AMAN TRADING COMPANY SATISH CHAND JAIN MR. 212.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MADHAV COTEX PVT LTD. SUBHASH NARULA, ASHOK VIZ 209.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA FINESSE IMPEX LTD. AJAY GUPTA, NISHIT GOEL, DEEPAK JAIN, VIVEK GUPTA 209.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA BHARAT INTFAB MAHOHAR AHUJA, AMIT M. AHUJA 208.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NANAK DAIRY PLANT NANAK SINGH (DECEASED), SMT.BALWANT KAUR, SHIV RAJ SINGH, ONKAR SINGH, BHUPINDER SINGH, AVTAR SINGH 208.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA United Traders Manoj Guha Thakurdas, Supriya Choudhary Guarantor 205.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
MARUTI TELESTAR INDUSTRIES
LTD. CHAND SWAROOP KAPOOR, KIRAN PANKAJ GUPTA 202.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
SHRI SADGURUKRUPA TRADING
PVT. LTD. VISHWANATH M. SHINDE, HARINATH B. KADAM 202.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SUNAIN INVESTMENTS P. LTD. S.N.CHATURVEDI, S.V.CHATURVEDI, N.L.CHATURVEDI 200.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA HARYANA ZINK P. LTD. RAJ BALA TYAGI(MRS.), RAKESH KUMAR TYAGI, RAJINDER KUMAR TYAGI 199.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
SHREE MAHALAXMI COLD
STORAGE & ICE FACTORY
SUSHMA JINDAL, ANUPAM JINDAL, AMIT JINDAL, ROHIT JINDAL,
RAHUN JINDAL, MINU SRIVASTAV 198.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA R & J ALLOYS PVT. LTD. RAJENDRA KUMAR JAIN, RAKESH VERMA 196.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA BANSI DAIRY SHYAM RAMAPATI PANDEY 193.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RAVI SPINNING MILLS LTD. GHANSHYAM GOENKA, N.K.KOTHARI, VIKRAMADITYA GOENKA 191.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA M.J.M.DIAMOND TOOLS P. LTD ABHISHEK GOEL, JAGDEEP SETHI 191.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA DINESH AGRO PRODUCTS LTD. RAMKRISHNA B. MORE, DINESH B. MORE, SUREKHA B. MORE 189.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA PUPPY’S GRAND SWIM & SLIM VEERABATHIRAN SHIVANESAN ARUNACHALA NAIR, SIVAGNANA DEVI W/O VERABATHIRAN SIVANESA 189.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA FORTUNE PETECH PVT. LTD. NIKHIL KOTHARI S/O NARENDRA KOTHARI, SAMEER SINHA S/O RAMENDRA PRASAD 187.00
CENTRAL BANK OF
INDIA FITWELL FABRICATORS GURUDAS NILOO NARVEKAR 186.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RAJ METAL INDUSTRIES (P) LTD. M.VENUGOPAL REDDY, P.CHANDRAVATTAMA, N.VENKATESWARA RAO, A. SRINIVASA KUMAR, G.KRISHNAVENI 186.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA AWADH FERTILIZERS LTD R S MAHESHWARI, R K MAHESHWARI, MANISH MAHESHWARI, RUPESH MAHESHWARI, MUKESH MAHESHWARI, RISI
MAHESHWARI. 186.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MARGRA INDUSTRIES LTD. DEEPAK KHOSLA, VINEET KHOSSLA, RANE KHOSLA 185.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA DEVA SOLVENT INDUSTRIES ADITYA SINGHAL, RIPUDAMAN SINGHAL, SUCHET SINGHAL 184.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA LAXMI AUTO INDUSTRIES SATISH KUMAR, PARMINDER SINGH 184.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA RAJ REXINE PVT. LTD. DESRAJ MANCHANDA, VIJAY MANCHANDA, SHASHI V. MANCHANDA(SMT.) 182.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
COSCO SALES & SERVICES PVT.
LTD. SURESH GOEL, GAUTAM GOEL, ADITYA GOEL 180.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA AGRASEN IMPEX KAVITA AGARWAL 178.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA XTREME COFFEE EXPORTS P. LTD. M.A. SREEDHAR, M.S.VANI DEVI (MRS,) 175.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA BHISMA ISPAT PVT. LTD. AMOLAK RAM SINGLA, SURESH KUMAR SINGLA, RAJESH KUMAR SINGLA 172.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SAMARJIT SINGH CHABRA SAMARJIT SINGH CHABRA 171.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
CENTRAL INDIA FOOD PRODUCTS
PVT. LTD. RAM GOPAL KABRA, KRISHNA GOPAL KABRA, BRIJ GOPAL KABRA 171.00

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MATHIAS PACKAGING PVT. LTD. I.J.MATHIAS, REGINA MATHIAS, J. ISSIAH 169.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA NIRMALA PULSES(P) LTD. NIRMALA RAJENDRA AGARWAL, SATYANARAYAN B.AGARWAL 168.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
NARENDRA DADA AGRO
INDUSTRIES LTD. KISTAYYA KOYADWAR, PRASHANT CHOURASIYA, BHAGABAI KOYADWAR, SHASHI CHOURASIA, RAMESH CHOURASIA, VINOD KOYADAWAR, YESHWANT ELAPURE. 168.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA KHURANA DUPLEX BOARD JAGMOHAN SINGH KHURANA, JOGINDER SINGH KHURANA, VIJENDER SINGH KHURANA, SMT. HARBHAJAN KAUR, SMT. JASPAL KAUR, SMT. AMARJEET KAUR, GURPREET SINGH KHURANA, A. S. AWASTHI. 167.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SUMEET MACHINES LTD. AJAY MATHUR, KAVITHA MATHUR, P. THUKRAL, V.D.KHER – NOMINEE DIR., J. JAYARAMAN 167.00
CENTRAL BANK OF
INDIA VICTOR STRIPS LTD. KULDIP SINGH BHALLA, VEENA K BHALLA 166.0

CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA PNB FERTILIZERS A.J.PATEL, P.J.PATEL 165.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA USHAKANT STEELS P. LTD. KANTILAL RAMKRISHNA CHIR, MADE, USHA KANTILAL CHIRMADE, ASHWIN KANTILAL CHIRMADE 161.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA MEDIA CLOTHING OM PRAKASH JAISANI(PROP) 160.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA J.D.IMPEX MUNISH MADHOK 160.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA SOUTHERN TIMBER TRADERS SHAHUL HAMEED(SOLE PROP) 159.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA Continental Engineering Ind Barun Kr Ghosh B G 150,Salt Lake,Kolkata, Bhabatosh Chanda 223,MG Rd,Arabinda Naga 155.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA U.A.ARGO COOP. V.R.DIVARKARNI (PROP) 155.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA
SHREE SHRADA INDUSTRIES PVT.
LTD. ASHOK DIDWANIA, SANJAY JHUNJHUNWALA, NIRMAL JATIA 155.00
CENTRAL BANK OF INDIA R. D. Marble & Company. Sri Dhiman Bhusan Dhar, Sm Ratna Dhar 154.00

(Central Bank List to continue)

Former Chief of Air Staff Mr. S. Krishnaswamy has written an article on  the Rafale deal in Indian Express, Ahemedabad Edition on Saturday 1st Sept. He has given point by point explanation on the issues raised by the Congress Party and opposition parties,  inside and outside Parliament. Salient features are as under:
1. There is a secrecy clause between the Indian and Franch Governments, which does not permit disclosure of deal.
2. If the opposition wants details of cost, Parliament can debate the price in secret session as permitted by clause 245-252 of Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha.
3. Rafale was selected in 2012 but UPA Govt didn’t sign the deal.
4. Dassault Aviation refused to take responsibility for work share of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
5. On all previous licence productions, Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM) never took guarantee on aircraft manufactured by HAL under licence.
6. Air Force insisted on such a guarantee due to unsatisfactory performance of HAL in the  past.
7. HAL assessed the manhours to produce the aircraft were almost 3 times that were taken by OEM.
8. Deal of UPA therefore went into the freezer.
9. In 2014 Indian Air Force (IAF) projected their urgent requirement of 36 aircrafts i.e. 2 squadrons.
10. NDA Govt decided to purchase 36 aircrafts in a comprehensive package that would make the new aircraft operational at the earliest.
11. Inter-government contract was signed in 2016.
12. Package included Meteor missile, short range air to air missiles and other weapons.
13. Contract also included training systems, performance based logistic support for 2 squadrons, enhanced period of maintenance support and full maintenance support at two bases.
14. It was a comprehensive package and the quickest possible way to operationalise the new induction.
15. Contract envisaged in 2012 by UPA was only for production of bare aircraft that would have called for the need for many separate additional contracts to produce weapons etc.
16. These additional contracts would have dragged on for years and added a few thousand crores to the cost.
17. When Mirage 2000 was procured the weapons came much later.
18. Off-set on any purchase provide opportunities for national industries to manufacture required spares.
19. OEM i.e. Dassault and their partner could choose any offset partner from India from a list of 100 or more.
20. Reliance Industries figures in the list.
21. Rafale deal of 2016 involved 50 % offset clause which involves 30 % investment by Dassault for military aerospace R & D and 20 % for manufacturing Rafale components in India.
22. Importantly, none of the 36 aircrafts being supplied to India are likely to have parts produced in India.
23. All 36 aircrafts will be delivered between 2019 – 2022
24. Reliance has a 49 % stake in DRAI, a joint venture formed with Dassault.
25. This joint venture of Reliance is formed to make only aero structures for Dassault’s Falcon civil aircraft. It has no bearing on Rafale deal.
26. If there is any manoeuvring done to favour Reliance, it must be investigated.
27. Independent authorities like CAG, CVC, Parliamentary Accounts Committee keep an eye at the macro level and have powers to audit budget, expenditure etc.
28. PAC examining the Jaguar deal in 1987  had concluded that Rs 1500 crores had gone down the drain because the planes were outdated.
29. No one in the world is flying Jagaur in 2018 except India.
30. IAF is planning to upgrade these aircrafts and give them a fresh life for another 25 years.
31. New inductions of Aircrafts invariably got delayed because politicians fought and bureaucrats sat on the files.
32. Decisions are often delayed beyond the expiry of the offer.
33. We as a nation must debate about facts while staying with decency.

By: Late V. Sundaram, IAS

Rs 60,00,000 Crore Thorium Scam by … by whom – you guess !

Illegal sand mining is rife throughout the coastal belts of India. Many of us are under the impression that this sand is used for construction.

We couldn’t be more wrong !!

India holds the biggest reservoir of Thorium along our beaches, with Tamil Nadu alone holding more than 30% of the world’s Thorium deposits. The sand in our beaches is full of Thorium.

India was No 1 in Thorium based Fast Breeder ( FBT) Nuclear Technology.

[ A note by the editor: Let us know, for the uninitiated, what is the importance of Thorium based FBT Nuclear Technology.

We all know about atom bombs, which country posses them in greatest number, why there is so much control and curb on the export of its technology and related material from one country to another and what goes into the nitty gritty of this technology. This is one aspect of the Nuclear Technology. Another aspect is its application in the power generation. All countries are hungry for power – electricity – for the development of their economy. Industries need electricity to run them. And, in this matter – electricity generation – the Nuclear Technology is very handy.

Unfortunately, the Nuclear Technology mastered by most of the world’s powers revolve around Uranium. Uranium is found in very little quantity around the world. Its mining, processing and export is highly controlled by the countries which possess its raw material in the form of mineral.

Fortunately, Thorium and Uranium both are radioactive and fit for running the electricity generation process, called Fast Breeder Technology. But the technology of utilizing Thorium in Fast Breeder Reactors is not perfected by most of the countries and they depend entirely on Uranium technology.

Here comes the relevance of Thorium and India. India was at the forefront in the world in developing and perfecting the Thorium Fast Breeder Reactors Technology. Killing this edge of Indian superiority in this new technology amounts to Greatest Crime by anybody who might be found responsible for the same.]

Hold the breath:

India was No. 1 in Thorium based Fast Breeder Nuclear Technology … untill ex-PM Dr Manmohan Singh and Union Defence Minister A.K Antony moth balled it for 10 years, under orders of the Congress President Sonia Gandhi.

Once Sonia Gandhi led UPA government came to power, former Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh followed an unwritten policy of severely downsizing indigenous Thorium-Based Technology Programme ( Fast Breeder Reactor — FBT), thereby making India dependent on foreign countries for advanced nuclear technology, key scientists claim on the condition of anonymity.

Indian Nuclear Scientists at Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) claim that by 2013, India would have mastered the technology to build Thorium based 1 Gigawatt Nuclear Reactors, which is now being supplied by China to Pakistan.

The smuggling and illegal mining of beach mineral sand started flourishing in Kerala costal lines after 2007 when ilmenite was delisted from the list of ‘Prescribed Substances’, by the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh during the UPA-I rule .

Not many Indians know that RARE EARTH Mineral — Titanium is processed from ilmenite.

Indian Nuclear Scientists say that, “Since the UPA government assumed office in 2004 with Manmohan Singh as Prime Minister, 2.1 million tones of RARE EARTHS ( that contain monazite , ilmenite, cerium, Garnet, Zircon and Rutile), equivalent to 195,300 tonnes of thorium at 9.3 per cent recovery, has disappeared from the sea shores of India.” This RARE EARTHS ( monazite, quite rich in thorium), is reported to have been mostly exported to other countries by a powerful mining cartel.

China has received Thorium from us that will last them for 24,000 years!

Chinese are now developing THORIUM MOLTEN SALT REACTOR (MSR) TECHNOLOGY, in collaboration with USA. China Takes Lead in Race for Clean Nuclear Power. This should have been ours but for this Italian and her traitorous Sepoys! Karuna, Waitress, were paid handsomely by China for the sands, sent by local barges to trincomalee. It was daylight smuggling, completely off the export books. Pay rent directly to Dubai banks.

राजन सिंह परिहार

कुछ लोगों की शिकायत है कि प्रधानमन्त्री दलितों के ऊपर अत्यधिक मेहरबान हैं जो सच भी है। लेकिन जब आप सब गहराई पूर्वक सूक्ष्मतम रूप से इस पर विचार करेंगे तो प्रधानमन्त्री आपको ग़लत नहीं लगेंगे।

दलितों को लेकर चार अन्तरराष्ट्रीय तत्वों में होड़ सी मची है। एक ओर इसे विदेशी धन के बलबूते चर्च निगलना चाह रहा है तो दूसरी ओर इस्लाम भी जय मीम और जय भीम का नारा देकर निगलने को तैयार खड़ा है। तीसरी ओर अन्य पन्थ भी इस समाज पर अपना अलग अधिकार जताता है तो चौथी ओर कम्युनिस्ट पार्टियां इसे धर्म और आस्था से विहीन कर हिन्दुओंं से अलग करने पर आमदा हैं।

यह चारों के चारों अंतरराष्ट्रीय/अराष्ट्रीय तत्व हैं और इनमें से एक की ओर भी दलितों का झुकना न तो भारत के लिए हितैषी है और न ही बहुसंख्यक हिन्दू समाज के लिए। क्योंकि यदि दलित इन चारों में से किसी एक से भी जुड़ते हैं तो हमारा देश और धर्म दोनों कमजोर हो जाएगा।
इसलिए प्रधानमन्त्री जी का पूरा जोर यह है कि दलितों को इन चारों अराष्ट्रीय तत्वों के चंगुल में फंसने से कैसे रोकें? ताकि न तो देश की दीवार में कोई दरार आए और न ही हिन्दुत्व कमजोर हो।

इसलिए आप प्रधानमन्त्री की दूरदृष्टि को गम्भीरतापूर्वक समझने का प्रयास कीजिए। दलितों पर फोकस होने का मतलब उनहे इन चारों के जाल में फंसने से रोकना है।
जब स्थिति सामान्य होगी और देश नियन्त्रण में होगा तो देशद्रोह के लिए कोई सर नहीं उठा सकेगा । सनातनधर्म और राष्ट्र सुरक्षित होगा।

NOTA का समर्थन करने वाले सभी मित्रों से विनम्र आग्रह: यदि Modi सरकार के SC / ST Act पर वर्तमान स्टैंड के आधार पर हमने NOTA का विकल्प चुना और आपके अनुसार इस स्वर्ण और पिछड़ा विरोधी इस Modi सरकार को हमने 2019 में उखाड़ फेंक दिया तो फ़िर 2019 में सरकार किसकी बनेगी? आओ, मंथन करते हैं।

1.SC / ST ACT लागू करने वाली कांग्रेस की?

2.SC / ST की राजनीति करने वाली मायावती +गठजोड़ की?

3.मुस्लिम +यादव की राजनीति वाली SP की?

4.मुस्लिम तुष्टीकरण वाली ममता या ओवैसी की?

5.Anti North या United South India मुहिम वाली साउथ पार्टी की?

6.Anti India मुहिम वाली वामपन्थी लोगो की?

7.U Tern लेने वाले केजरीवाल की?

8.या इन सब का संयुक्त गठजोड़ जिसमे मायावती भी शामिल होंगी, उनकी?

उपरोक्त 8 ऑप्शन में से ऐसा कोन होगा जो SC / ST Act में आपकी मनमर्ज़ी के मुताबिक बदलाव ला पाएगा?

और इस तरह की सरकार से हिंदुस्तान का क्या हश्र होगा?

क्या 2004-2014 वाली लूट सरकार वाला?

हमने इतिहास में जय चंद का नाम सुना है। क्या जयचंद की मोहम्मद गौरी से कोई मित्रता थी? जबाब है “बिल्कुल नहीं।” सिर्फ पृथ्वीराज चौहान से अत्यधिक नफरत के कारण उसने पृथ्वीराज चौहान के दुश्मन का साथ दिया और काम निकलते ही मोहम्मद गौरी ने जयचंद का भी काम तमाम कर दिया था।

इतिहास से सबक लीजिए, राजनीति या विरोध जरूर किजियेगा पर अनजाने में देश विरोधियों की मदद मत कर दीजिएगा।

मैं भी SC / ST Act के वर्तमान प्रारूप और जातिगत आरक्षण का पुरज़ोर विरोध करता हूँ और सरकार से मांग करता हूँ कि जन भावना का सम्मान करे। परन्तु 2019 मे मैं राष्ट्र निर्माण के लिए, हिंदुस्तान को तरक्की की राह पर ले जाने की योग्यता रखने वाले प्रतिनिधि, राजनीतिक दल को वोट जरूर करूंगा।

क्या ये Nota वाले हमे कांग्रेस की B Team प्रतीत नहीं होते ? कांग्रेस अच्छी तरह से जानती है कि कोई उसे वोट नहीं देगा इसीलिए SC / ST Act की आड़ में Nota के जरिए वो हमारे Vote को खराब करवा कर 2019 में सत्ता पाना चाहती है। इसीलिए अपने विवेक का उपयोग करें।